ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate): This is an important chemical involved in the energy production of a cell. ADP is formed when ATP is broken down within the mitochondria (the cells `"furnaces ") to provide energy for muscular contraction. In order to recreate ATP and replenish cellular energy stores, ADP must combine with creatine phosphate.

AKG (alpha keto glutarate): AKG is a precursor to glutamine. Unlike straight glutamine, the gut does not recognize AKG. Therefore, more AKG makes it through the digestive system compared to free glutamine. Once in the body, AKG can be converted to glutamine as necessary. Also see "glutamine" and "amino acids."

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): This is a high-energy molecule stored in muscle and other cells in the body. When a muscle cell needs energy to contract, ATP is broken-down to ADP to provide this energy. ATP can be thought of as the actual fuel that makes muscles move. Oxygen and glucose contribute to the formation of ATP. Many distributors of the supplements alleged to be performance-enhancing or ergogenic aids claim the supplements increase oxygen or glucose delivery to the cells. This would, inturn, increase the usable fuel in the form of ATP, hence increasing the duration of muscular endurance.

Acesulfame K (Acesulfame Potassium or Ace-K): Acesulfame K is a calorie free artificial sweetener manufactured from several minerals, namely potassium, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. This substance has a very sweet taste (about 200 times sweeter than sugar), yet it is not metabolized by the body, and is excreted by the body unchanged. Acesulfame K is a safe sweetener, and was approved by the FDA in 1988 as a sugar substitute, based upon four long-term studies available at the time. In one of those studies, the FDA applied a 100-fold safety factor in making its safety assessment. This means that the FDA tested the product using a dosage 100 times the amount humans would normally consume. Even at this high dosage, no adverse effects were reported. Further, unlike other artificial sweeteners, Ace K is also stable when heated. Acesulfame K is used as an artificial sweetener in the EAS products BetaGen grape flavor, Myoplex Shakes, Precision Protein and Simply Protein.

Acetyl: A molecular structure that is a combination of 2 carbons, 3 hydrogens, and one oxygen (CH3CO). When this group replaces a hydrogen atom on the molecular structure of a substance, the substance is said to be acetylized. This reaction produces a variation of the original substance and offers some unique properties. For instance, L-Cysteine, when acetylized, becomes NAC (n-acetyl-cysteine). NAC is more stable in the body and has a much more pronounced effect on immune support than L-Cysteine alone.

Additive Effect: This term is often used in scientific jargon when researchers are measuring the effects of two or more substances in a single study. "Additive effect" simply means the combined effect of two or more factors equals the sum of their individual effects in isolation. For example, let`s say creatine monohydrate supplementation, by itself, enhances lean body mass by six pounds over a four-week period, and HMB supplementation, by itself, increases lean body mass by two pounds over a four-week period. If their effects are additive, we would expect subjects to gain eight pounds in a four-week period of time when the two products are "stacked.

Aerobic: This means "requiring oxygen." Aerobic metabolism occurs during low-intensity, long-duration exercises, like jogging.

All Natural: This is gym jargon for athletes who have not used anabolic steroids for a particular period of time. Usually, natural athletic competitions are open to athletes who have not used steroids or other banned ergogenic aids for a period of no less than 12 months.

Alpha Keto Glutarate (AKG): AKG is a precursor to glutamine. Unlike straight glutamine, the gut does not recognize AKG. Therefore, more AKG makes it through the digestive system compared to free glutamine. Once in the body, AKG can be converted to glutamine as necessary. Also see "glutamine" and "amino acids."

Alpha-GPC (L-Alpha Glycerylphosphorylcholine): Alpha-GPC (sometimes called GPC (glycerophosphocholine)) is a naturally occurring phospholipid found in the body. The Alpha GPC that is used in nutritional supplements is derived from soy lecithin. Alpha-GPC acts as a precursor of acetylcholine which may allow for greater strength output during intense exercise and physical activities. In addition, GPC may improve memory and brain function, balance and coordination, and increase growth hormone secretion.

Amino Acids: These are a group of nitrogen-containing, carbon-based organic compounds that serve as the building blocks from which protein (and muscle) is made.

Anabolic: This term refers to promoting anabolism, which is the actual building process of tissues, mainly muscle, in the body. This might occur through the body’s own natural reactions to muscular work and proper nutrition or through the introduction of drugs. Anabolism occurs by taking substances from the blood that are essential for growth and repair and using them to stimulate reactions which produce tissue synthesis.

Anabolic Steroids: These are synthetic versions of the male hormone testosterone, a hormone that controls many functions and occurs naturally in the body. Among these functions is the promotion of anabolism. Steroids mimic this naturally occurring event, but have the ability to do so at an accelerated rate. Through drastic metabolic changes in the body, anabolic steroids speed up protein synthesis, reduce catabolism, and increase muscle mass and strength in athletes who train with weights. Steroids not only exert their effects on muscles, but unfortunately affect many other parts of the body as well. This is why dramatic gains in muscularity are often accompanied by serious side effects.

Anaerobic: This word means "without oxygen." Anaerobic metabolism in muscle tissue occurs during explosive activities like weightlifting or sprinting.

Anhydrous: Literally translated this means "without water". When this word is used as a description of another substance, this means that the substance is in its "water-free" form.

Anti-Catabolism: This is the halting of cellular breakdown in the body. A number of effective nutritional supplements such as glutamine, AKG, and HMB, as well as anabolic steroids, may help promote anti-catabolism. Slowing down the breakdown of protein tips the scales of protein metabolism in favor of new muscle growth.

Anti-Proteolysis: This is a specific type of anti-catabolism: namely, the slowing or halting of protein (muscle) breakdown in the body.

Antioxidants: These are little dudes that minimize tissue oxidation and help control free radicals and their nasty effects.

Aseptic Processing: The absence of any living microorganisms inside the package. This is accomplished through heating to pateurization temperatures (190 degrees Fahrenheit). Aseptic processing can include either hot fill or cold fill technology. Aseptic processing allows Myoplex and AdvantEdge RTD’s to have a shelf-life of 18-months at room temperature where no harmful bacteria could grow to cause human illness or spoil the product. Aseptic processing can include either hot fill or cold fill techniques. As a simple rule, any product with milk derivatives has to go through a heating process to pro-long the shelf-life ensuring safety of the product upon consumption.

Aspartame: Aspartame is an artificial sweetener manufactured from two amino acids called L-aspartic acid and L-phenylalanine through fermentation, a process similar to the manufacturing of baker’s yeast. This results in a calorie-free product that is 180-200 times sweeter than sugar. When aspartame is digested, the body breaks it down into its component parts, aspartic acid, phenylalanine and methanol. All three of these components are regularly consumed, as they are found in common foods. Aspartame has been studied extensively; more than 200 objective peer-reviewed scientific studies have shown no adverse effects from aspartame ingestion, even when taken in excessive quantities. In addition to review by the scientific community, aspartame safety has been reviewed and approved by many well-respected regulatory authorities in more than 100 countries. For example, aspartame safety has been reviewed and confirmed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (26 times within the last 23 years), the Center for Disease Control, the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Foods, the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization, World Health Organization, American Medical Association, and the American Diabetes Association. All of these agencies have found aspartame to be safe. One concern many people have about aspartame is that one of the breakdown components is methanol, a toxin in large dosages. Methanol is a common chemical found in foods such as fruits, vegetables, and juices. The body has no difficulty processing methanol from these foods one eats daily. In fact, aspartame provides considerably less methanol to the body in comparison to these fruits and vegetables. For example, 8 oz. of tomato juice contains six times as much methanol as an 8 oz. of an aspartame-sweetened beverage. Due to the concentrated nature of aspartame as a sweetener, it is not necessary to use much aspartame to provide the intended sweetness in foods. To gain some perspective, one would have to consume approximately 675 to 1690 cans (or 240-600 liters) of an aspartame-sweetened beverage in one sitting to reach a toxic level. Currently, the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for aspartame is set at 50 mg by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. This means that the FDA considers this level of intake safe if consumed chronically on a lifetime basis. Studies show that average aspartame consumption for Americans is well below these levels, even for high level consumers. Another unfounded consumer concern is that aspartame causes cancer. After extensive review, the FDA, National Cancer Institute, and the American Cancer Society unilaterally agree that there is no substantiation to these claims. Similarly, studies investigating the incidence of headaches while ingesting aspartame have shown no correlation1. 1) Schiffman S et al, "Aspartame and susceptibility to headache," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 317, 1987, pp. 1181-1185.

Aspirin (salicylic acid): In addition to its most common use as a pain reliever, asprin is sometimes found in thermogenic compounds. While aspirin has no thermogenic properties of its own, it was thought to extend the half-life (how long it was active in the body) of caffeine, thus helping to prolong the fat burning process. Recent research has shown that asprin is not particularly effective in that capacity. For this reason, most thermogenic blends no longer use this compound. In addition to the drug form, the active ingredient, salicylic acid, may be extracted from the herb white willow.

Assimilation: This is the process by which foods are absorbed and utilized by the body.

Attenuate: This verb means to weaken, diminish, or reduce. This term is often used to describe the diminishing effect of a drug or supplement over time. For example, if you take the herb ephedra every day, its positive effects "attenuate "—they diminish.

Autolyzed Yeast Extract: When yeast cells die, they automatically break up, a process called autolysis. What remains is a collection of protein, fats, vitamins, minerals, and most importantly, monosodium glutamate (MSG), a flavor enhancer. Monosodium glutamate consists of a single atom of sodium bound to the amino acid glutamate (glutamate is a short step away from the more well known amino acid glutamine). This product is common in prepared foods like lunchmeats, broths, and potato chips due to its ability to enhance the flavor of many foods. MSG is also found naturally in many food sources such as tomatoes, mushrooms, and carrageenan derived from algae. Most people are able to tolerate MSG with no problem, although a small percentage of the population is sensitive to MSG (this condition is often called "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" since MSG is prevalent in soy sauce).

Banaba leaf: Banaba is a medicinal plant that grows in India, Southeast Asia and the Philippines. Traditional uses include brewing tea from the leaves as a treatment for diabetes and hyperglycemia (elevated blood sugar). The hypoglycemic (blood sugar lowering) effect of banaba leaf extract is similar to that of insulin which induces glucose transport from the blood into body cells.

Bioavailability: This is the ease at which nutrients can be absorbed. (This differs from potency.)

Biochemical Reaction: This term refers to the broad range of chemical reactions which take place in all living organisms. Examples of biochemical reactions, which occur within the human body, are the conversion of blood sugar into energy, the effects of testosterone on muscle cell growth, and nerve impulse reaction, to name only a few of thousands.

Biological Value (BV): This is a measure of protein quality, assessed by how well a given food or food mixture supports nitrogen retention in humans.

Biotin: Biotin is not considered a true vitamin since it is made in our bodies in the intestines. Biotin is a coenzyme that is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and the synthesis of fats and proteins. Deficiencies in biotin intake may lead to nausea, numbness, depression, and high serum cholesterol. Foods high in biotin include chicken, lamb, pork, beef, veal, liver, cheese, salt water fish, and whole wheat flour. Biotin is relatively stable during cooking and processing.

Body Composition: This is the percentage of your body composed of fat versus fat-free mass. Very sensitive methods of body composition measurements, including DEXA, can actually subdivide body composition into more specific categories, such as percentage of bone mineral, body water, hair, etc.

Body Mass Index: The body mass index (BMI) is a calculation of recommended body weight that is determined by dividing your weight in kilograms by the square of your height in meters. An index in the range of about 19-25 is considered normal. We do not make recommendations based on BMI because it does not give useful information to athletes and fitness enthusiasts. The calculation fails to account for body composition. Imagine a short, muscular football running back. This player will have a high BMI because he is heavy and not tall. Is he too fat? Not even close. We prefer to use body fat percentage. That is the ratio of your total fat mass to your body weight. You can have your body fat percentage measured at your local gym. A healthy normal range for women is about 20-24%. A healthy normal range for men is about 14-18%.

Borage Oil: Borage oil contains more gamma-linoleic acids (GLA) than any other oil (about 24%). Although the body can produce GLA, a large percentage of the population is unable to produce GLA effectively due to dietary deficiencies, alcohol abuse, medical conditions, or aging. Because of the high concentration of GLA in borage oil, this oil may help to make up for the body’s inability to produce an optimal amount of GLA. In clinical settings, studies on GLA supplementation have demonstrated beneficial effects on prostaglandins (hormone-like chemicals), blood pressure, blood cholesterol, fat metabolism, liver function, weight loss, PMS, and the condition of hair and nails, among other effects.

Boswellia Serrata: Boswellia serrata is a medium sized branching tree that grows in the dry, mountainous regions of India. The purified compound obtained from the trees’ gummy resin is used in India for the treatment of chronic inflammatory arthritis. Boswellic acids, which are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, may be more beneficial, less toxic, and more potent than aspirin, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDS).

Brown Adipose Tissue: Brown adipose tissue resides in various locations throughout the body, depending upon the age of the individual. In humans it may be found deep in the thoracic and abdominal regions and near the thymus (located above the heart). Due to its color and vascularization, it is occasionally mistaken for a type of gland. One of the major attributes of brown fat cells is that they contain an extraordinary number of mitochondria (the energy producing organisms in cells). This gives brown adipose tissue the unique ability to generate heat which may contribute towards overall thermogenesis.

Buffer: This is a substance that minimizes changes in hydrogen-ion concentration (pH). Buffers such as sodium phosphate are used by athletes to help reduce lactic-acid buildup during strenuous exercise.

CLA (conjugated linoleic acid): CLA stands for conjugated linoleic acid. It’s a naturally occurring omega-6 fatty acid in a number of foods. Fatty acids are the building blocks that make up fat, in sort of the same way amino acids are the molecules that make up a protein. Examples of other fatty acids include linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. Due to the unique chemical structure of CLA (two double bonds separated by one single bond) compared to regular linoleic acid, CLA functions quite differently from regular linoleic acid (the kind found in sunflower oil or safflower oil). Specifically, CLA may help with reducing bodyfat, increasing lean body mass, promoting immune function, preventing muscle wasting, and may have antioxidant qualities. CLA is found in relatively large quantities in some foods like dairy products, beef and veal, and even turkey. The average person probably gets up to one gram a day just by eating regular foods. The trouble is, you’d probably have to eat more meat or more cheese than you ever dreamed of to get enough CLA to see any beneficial effects. For instance, cheeses have an average of between 2.9 mg and 7.1 mg of CLA per gram of fat. You’d have to eat cheese on the order of several pounds a day to get anywhere near the three-gram dosage that appears to be beneficial to humans. It makes more sense to consume CLA supplements that contain a high concentration of this unique fatty acid.

Caffeine: Caffeine is a drug used in sports arenas as a thermogenic compound for increasing metabolic rate. The product’s thermogenic qualities are dramatically increased when it is combined in the proper ratios with ephedrine, one reason why these ingredients are often combined in many dietary supplements intended for bodyfat loss. In sports, caffeine is also used for its stimulant properties. Caffeine is found in either an anhydrous (synthetic) form or as a standardization of the herb guarana.

Calcium: Calcium (CA) is a mineral used to create and strengthen the skeletal system and teeth. It is also helpful in maintaining a normal heartbeat and facilitating blood clotting. Calcium is also needed for proper nerve function, for muscles to contract and relax properly, for activating the enzymes involved in fat and protein digestion, and in the production of energy. Calcium deficiencies can lead to osteoporosis, muscle cramps and contractions. Low dietary calcium intake may be a factor in high blood pressure. Common food sources include milk, cheese, yogurt, salmon and sardines with bones, green leafy vegetables, green beans, soy beans, broccoli, almonds and fortified orange juice.

calcium carbonate: The reason calcium carbonate is added to the products is it acts as a "flow enhancer, or mixing agent." This basically means that it keeps molecules from clumping together in the manufacturing process, while at the same time it holds molecules (powders) together so they don’t disperse.

Calcium Caseinate: see "Casein"

Calorie: Calorie: A measurement of heat or energy. The Calorie can be applied to foods for labeling the energy content of foods. One Calorie, also known as a kilocalorie, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius.

Canola Oil: Most of the canola oil available in the United States is obtained from canola plants grown primarily in Western Canada. Canola oil has been promoted lately because it is lower in saturated fat than any other commonly available oil on the market (only 7%) and contains no cholesterol. Plus, canola oil also contains high levels of monounsaturated fats (61%). In spite of these positive attributes, canola is low in essential fatty acids, and may be more difficult to absorb than other oils. Therefore, as a fat source, canola oil may not offer the benefits of many other oils such as flaxseed oil and hemp oil. (also see "partially hydrogenated canola oil" and "high oleic canola oil")

Carbohydrates: These are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They`re a very effective fuel source for the body. The different types of carbohydrates include starches, sugars, and fibers, and are classified into three groups—monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Carbohydrates contain four calories per gram. Glucose—blood sugar—is a carbohydrate used by every cell in the body as fuel.

Carrageenan: Carrageenan, or Irish Seaweed, is a natural product with a gummy consistency normally derived from red seaweed. This product is added to many commercial foods such as meal replacement powders for its ability to stabilize and emulsify liquids. The inclusion of carrageenan to powder products also helps in the flow process during manufacturing, and acts as a thickening agent.

Casein (Caseinate): One of the two types of protein found in milk. Casein separates from milk when milk is curdled; a process commonly carried out in the manufacturing of cheese. Casein tends to form a "gel" in the stomach, which slows the digestion. This makes casein an ideal protein source to use right before bed, as it may release protein into the bloodstream over a period of time during sleep. Casein is also very high in the amino acid glutamine, a "conditionally essential" amino acid necessary for repair of muscle tissue after strenuous exercise. Calcium Caseinate vs. Sodium Caseinate: Like many other nutritional compounds, casein is typically bound to a metal since the molecule is more stable this way. Specifically, casein is most commonly bound to calcium (Ca2+) or sodium (Na+) since both of these metals are found naturally in milk, and tend to "stick" to the casein during the extraction process. Nutritionally, these compounds are basically interchangeable, as both forms of caseinate are effective protein sources.

Catabolic: This is the opposite of anabolic. It means the breakdown of tissue. Catabolic states occur with disease, infection, injury, intense training, strict dieting, and immobilization. Catabolic conditions are not conducive to lean muscle mass gains; in fact, they typically cause a loss of lean muscle mass.

Catabolism: This refers to the breakdown or loss of muscle and other bodily tissues.

Catechins: Catechins are plant pigments that can be found in fruits, vegetables, soy and herbs. They have both antioxidant and antiviral (e.g. influenza) qualities. Catechins may aid in weight-loss by suppressing the digestive enzymes alpha-amylase, sucrase, and alpha-glucosidase. This may limit carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine and thereby reduce sugar absorption in the body. Catechins may reduce the formation of tumors and may be helpful in the treatment of viral hepatitis. They also appear to be involved in preventing oxidative damage to the heart, kidney, lungs, skin cells, and spleen. As part of green tea, catechins may also inhibit the growth of stomach cancer cells and bacteria associated with food poisoning (e.g. salmonella enteritidis). Catechins may be involved in regulating blood pressure and cholesterol levels.

Cayenne Pepper: Cayenne pepper has a mild thermogenic effect when taken into the body, meaning that it may stimulate the burning of fatty acids, allowing the body to liberate calories as heat. As such, this product may support bodyfat loss.

Cellulose (dietary fiber): Cellulose is the fibrous part of plants, and provides bulk to the diet useful for regularity and proper digestion. Because of its high prevalence in plants, cellulose also has the distinction of being the most abundant organic (carbon-containing) compound in the world.

Chelating Agents: These are soluble organic compounds that can fit certain metallic ions into their molecular structure. These are often used to increase the absorption of minerals within the body. For example, amino acids are very commonly used as chelating agents for iron and other poorly absorbed minerals.

Cholesterol: This is a type of lipid which, although most widely known as a "bad fat" implicated in promoting heart disease and stroke, is a vital component in the production of many steroid hormones in the body. It also plays a vital role in proper cell-membrane structure and functioning. It’s a substrate for bile-acid synthesis, as well as sex hormone and Vitamin D synthesis. There are different types of cholesterol: namely, HDL and LDL (HDL being the "good" form and LDL being the "bad" form).

Chromium: Chromium (Cr) is a mineral that activates many enzymes involved in the metabolism of glucose and the synthesis of proteins. Chromium may also help to lower total cholesterol and LDL (bad) cholesterol. Deficiencies may lead to high serum cholesterol levels. Food sources include black pepper, brewer’s yeast, mushrooms, prunes, raisins, nuts, asparagus, beer and wine. Processing removes most of the chromium in foods but stainless steel vessels in contact with acidic foods may contribute additional Cr.

CitriMax: See "Hydroxy citric acid".

Citrin K: See "Hydroxy citric acid".

Citrus Aurantium: See "Synephrine"

Clarified Brown Rice Syrup: Brown rice syrup is an extremely versatile sweetener which is derived by culturing rice with enzymes to break down the starches, then straining off the liquid and cooking it. The final product is a predominantly slow-digesting carbohydrate that enters the bloodstream steadily over a two to three hour period. It may, therefore, have less of an impact on insulin release and consequently store less of the excess carbohydrates as fat.

Coenzyme: This is a substance which works with an enzyme to promote the enzyme’s activity. Many coenzymes have vitamins as part of their structures.

Cold Fill: Similar to hot fill in that the product is heated to 190 degrees Fahrenheit. However, unlike hot fill a cold fill product is immediately cooled to room temperature prior to bottling, or packaging. Cooling the product right away allows less vitamin degradation and variations of flavor that may be found with hot fill processing. Therefore, the flavor of a cold fill product may taste cleaner and fresher than products that have been hot filled. Preservatives are usually accompanied with cold filled products to control the growth of yeasts, molds and bacteria that could lead to product spoilage.

Cold Water Fish Oils: see "Fish Oils, Cold Water"

Coleus Forskohli: Coleus Forskohli is an herb that has been used for a variety of purposes in traditional Indian medicine (Ayurvedia) for centuries. As an agent for promoting fat loss, coleus forskohli acts as a precursor in the body to the enzyme adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase is the enzyme responsible for converting ATP (adenosine triphosphate, your body’s basic source of energy) into a compound called cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP is a "secondary messenger," which means that it is responsible for initiating the process of lipolysis (fat-burning) at the cellular level.

Colostrum : Colostrum is the first fluid produced in the breast following birth. After 48-72 hours have passed, it is replaced with full-blown breast milk. Colostrum placed in supplements typically comes from bovine sources. It is purported to have a variety of effects, including enhanced immune system function, faster recovery from intense exercise, increased protein synthesis, improved fat metabolism, and greater blood glucose uptake by the muscles. While newborns benefit from colostrum intake (immune support and support of the digestive system), adults will likely see no benefit in taking supplemental colostrum. The acidic environment of the adult stomach will destroy most of the active compounds, leaving only a few vitamins and minerals intact. As such, EAS products do not contain colostrum.

Complete Proteins: These are proteins that contain all the essential amino acids in the right balance.

Concentric Contraction: In practice, a concentric contraction usually occurs during the "lifting" phase of an exercise, such as when a weight is moved against the force of gravity (for example, by pushing, pulling, or pressing). More formally, a concentric contraction occurs when the muscular force about a joint is greater than the resistance that opposes that joint’s movement. The result is that the muscle or muscle group becomes shorter. Concentric muscle contractions are synonymous with the "positive" phase of a movement.

Copper: Copper (Cu) is a mineral that helps the body absorb and use iron to make hemoglobin. It is needed to develop taste sensitivity, form the skin pigment melanin, and the metabolism of fatty acids. It also plays a role in the development of collagen and bone, myelin (the outer covering of nerves), immune system support, lowering total cholesterol, and raising HDL (good) cholesterol. Copper deficiency may lead to anemia, skeletal defects, and cardiovascular abnormalities. Nervous system degeneration, skin discoloration, and elevated serum cholesterol are also symptoms of deficiency. Foods high in copper include liver, kidney, shellfish, raisins, whole grain cereals and nuts.

Cordyceps: Cordyceps is similar to ephedrine in that it may stimulate thermogenesis through the same pathway, increasing metabolic rate leading to bodyfat loss. Adding cordyceps into a thermogenic blend may aid in the actual release of fatty acids from storage to allow them to be burned as energy.

Corn Syrup: Corn syrup is a sweetener, manufactured from wet milling of corn. That is, corn is steeped for one day or more, coarse ground to remove the germ, and finely ground to remove the starch. This starch is then converted to syrup through a process of acid and enzyme treatments. The longer these treatments are allowed to continue, the sweeter the resultant corn syrup, since more and more dextrose is produced as the starch is processed. Corn syrup may be used as a sweetener, suspension agent to keep other ingredients evenly mixed, and as a thickener in salad dressings due to its viscous properties.

Corn Syrup Solids: Corn syrup solids are produced by carrying out the corn syrup refining process until the dextrose content makes up more that 20% of the total dry product. Because of this high ratio of dextrose, corn syrup solids are often used as a sweetener, especially in low-fat foods. Corn syrup is often used in low-fat foods as it adds sweetness, viscosity, and improves texture.

Corosolic acid: Corosolic acid is the active component in banaba leaf extract, which has been used for centuries as an herbal tea. Corosolic acid may help transport glucose into cells, balance blood sugar levels, and may help to control carbohydrate cravings. Corosolic acid can be found under the brand name "Glucosol" from Life Extension Vitamins.

Cortisol: This is one of the primary catabolic hormones in the body. However, catabolism, or the breakdown of body tissue, is not the only function of cortisol. It is typically secreted in response to physical trauma or prolonged stress. Its functions include controlling inflammation, increasing muscular catabolism and glycolysis (the energy-yielding conversion of glucose to lactic acid), suppressing immune response, and maintaining normal vascular circulation and renal function, among others. Suppressing cortisol production at key times during the day may help bodybuilders avoid excess muscle breakdown. But, you need some cortisol to survive.

Cottonseed oil: Like the name suggests, cottonseed oil is extracted from cottonseed. Cottonseed is mainly an unsaturated oil, as 70% of this oil is unsaturated (18% monounsaturated (oleic acid), and 52% polyunsaturated (from linoleic acid)). Because of its physical properties, it is often not necessary to hydrogenate cottonseed oil to achieve the correct consistency for many products. Therefore, cottonseed oil is often preferred over many other oils that would have to be hydrogenated (like soybean oil). Thus, by using cottonseed oil, product manufacturers can avoid adding trans fatty acids to manufactured goods. Nevertheless, cottonseed oil has been criticized in the past for containing natural toxic ingredients and pesticide remnants, although the most recent Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) indicates that there is likely no risk of toxicity to ingestion of cottonseed oil.

Creatine Citrate: Creatine citrate consists of a molecule of creatine bound to several citrate molecules. Once in the body, typically the creatine will break off of the citrates where it can be used for muscle work (where it is involved in the regeneration of the body’s energy currency - ATP). This product yields roughly 40%-50% free creatine by weight, less than its more common counterpart, creatine monohydrate (which yields 80%-90% free creatine by weight). Also, creatine monohydrate is usually lower in price. On account of these two factors, creatine monohydrate is more suitable for most applications. However, in certain applications creatine citrate may be a better choice. Specifically, creatine citrate is more soluble in water, and therefore may be a better choice when the product is combined with an effervescent delivery system, or when solubility is an issue.

Creatine Phosphate (CP): This is an inorganic phosphate molecule that binds with ADP to form ATP. Supplementing with creatine monohydrate helps increase your muscle’s CP reserves, which is good.

Cruciferous: This is a category that includes a group of vegetables named after the Latin word for "cross" since they all bear cross-shaped flowers. Cruciferous vegetables include cabbage and close relatives such as broccoli, brussel, sprouts, cauliflower, and kale. These vegetables contain nitrogenous compounds called indoles, which appear to be effective in protecting against certain forms of cancer, particularly cancers of the stomach and large intestine. These vegetables also tend to be a good source of fiber.

Crystalline Fructose: Crystalline fructose is produced through a complex series of steps, starting with the monosaccharide dextrose, which is derived originally from corn (dextrose is chemically identical to fructose but "inverted" in structure). The end product, crystalline fructose, is a sweet tasting solid that has the same properties as liquid fructose (see "fructose").

Cytokine: This term is used to describe a broad range of molecular protein messenger cells. The cytokine family of proteins includes interleukins (powerful anti-carcinogenic agents), interferons (which can be very effective against viral infection), IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor-1), etc. Cytokines act directly on cells and are very potent agents which can elicit massive changes in cellular function.

 

DEXA: This term stands for "dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry." DEXA is a form of total-body x-ray, which is used to determine body composition. This is probably the most accurate method available for measuring bodyfat, lean body mass, bone mineralization, and body water content. This is a very expensive procedure; however, it’s an important part of quality clinical trials.

DHA: Docosahexaenoic acid. (doe-ko-say-hex-ee-no-ik-acid). Part of the Omega 3 family found commonly in fish oils. DHA is a major component of brain matter and plays a role in the transmission of nerve signals. Deficiencies of DHA have been linked to depression and other emotional and behavioral conditions.

DSHEA: This is a term which stands for the "Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. " This law was established by Congress and states that "dietary supplements" are defined as: vitamins, minerals, herbs, or other botanicals (except tobacco), amino acids, any "dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake," and "a concentration, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any of the above-listed ingredients."

Daily Reference Intakes (DRI): The DRI was developed by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) with the goal of expanding upon the outdated Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA). These guidelines are broken into four categories: Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL). Accordingly, these recommendations are more specific than the RDA. For example, the DRI includes recommendations for higher dosages of certain nutrients where evidence exists that a particular nutrient may be beneficial for health or performance at a higher quantity (not only to prevent disease). Also, the DRI’s outline the maximum one would want to consume of a particular nutrient - something the RDA does not address.

Dairy: see "casein" and "whey"

Deficiency: This is a sub-optimal level of one or more nutrients that are essential for good health, most often seen with vitamins. Many natural supplements that are marketed to athletes as ergogenic aids are effective at enhancing performance if an individual is efficient in that nutrient. A deficiency can be caused by poor nutrition, increased bodily demands (especially from intense training), or both.

Dextrose: A disaccharide comprised of two glucose molecules. It is considered to be the dietary form of glucose and is a building block of complex sugars (polysaccharides) and starches. Dietary dextrose is readily absorbed by the body, and elicits a high glycemic response (rapidly stimulates the release of the hormone insulin). It is often used as a transport agent in creatine products for this reason. Dextrose is also used as a sweetener and a moisturizer in manufactured foods.

Diglycerides: Diglycerides consist of three parts: a "backbone" called glycerin plus two "fatty acid tails" attached to that glycerin molecule. Actually, the glycerin molecule is not a fat at all; the chemical structure of glycerin is more similar to a carbohydrate. Nevertheless, glycerin is rarely utilized by the body as an energy source, and thus functions mainly as a fatty acid "carrier." Dietary diglycerides included in foods are usually obtained from oils (often vegetable oil).

Dipeptides: These are protein fragments made up of only two amino acids.

Disaccharide: This is a carbohydrate compound made up of two sugars. Examples are sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose.

Diuretic: This term can describe any product that increases the amount of urine excreted by the body. Natural diuretics include black tea, coffee, guarana, and dandelion.

Double Blind Study: This is a research study design technique in which neither the subject nor the researcher know who is receiving the treatment or who is receiving or the placebo (a "fake" treatment - often a sugar pill). This type of study is typically more reliable than others because it controls for the placebo effect (see "placebo effect).

Drug: This is the generic name for any substance (except food) used for the prevention, diagnosis, and/or treatment of a disease, as well as the relief of symptoms. The word medicine is usually preferred to describe therapeutic drugs to distinguish them from the addictive drugs that are used illegally.

EPA: Eicosapentaenoic acid.(eeko-say-penta-no-ik-acid). Part of the Omega 3 family. EPA from fish oil helps to reduce the risk of heart arrhythmias (abnormal heartbeat) and may help to lower blood pressure. EPA may also reduce the stickiness of blood platelets. This helps to prevent them from accumulating in the arteries which would lead to blockages, and ultimately heart attack or stroke. Lesions in the arteries that can `catch’ passing cholesterol and platelets to form a blockage are less likely to form when there is plenty of EPA in the blood plasma.

Eccentric Contraction : In practice, an eccentric muscle contraction typically occurs during the "lowering" phase of an exercise, such as when a weight is moving in the same direction as gravity. More formally, an eccentric muscle contraction occurs when the resistance about a joint is greater than the muscular force that opposes the movement. The result is a lengthening of the muscle or muscle group, even though the muscle (or muscle group) is contracting, or exerting force. Eccentric exercises, or "negatives" are thought to be responsible for much of the muscle breakdown and subsequent muscle soreness that occurs due to resistance exercise.

Efficacious: This means producing the desired effect—that "it works."

Egg Albumin: The major protein constituent of egg whites. Although egg protein was crowned the "gold standard" by food scientists several decades ago, egg protein has been "honorably discharged" from this position by other proteins such as soy protein isolate and whey protein, as further knowledge has been garnered about these latter proteins. Nevertheless, egg protein boasts an outstanding amino acid profile, and is still one of the best whole food protein sources.

Electrolytes: These are substances that, in solution, are capable of conducting electricity. These charged particles are present throughout the body and are involved in many activities such as regulating the distribution of water inside and outside cells in the body. Examples include the bulk minerals, potassium, sodium, and chloride.

Empirical Data: This is information based on observation and experience, not scientific reasoning. Empirical data is often very accurate, although it is not accepted as scientifically sound; however, no area of science is devoid of a real-world/empirical component.

Endogenous: This term refers to things that occur naturally in the body. For example, the testosterone your body produces naturally is "endogenous."

Energy: This is the capacity to do work. The energy in food is chemical energy: It can be converted to mechanical, electrical, or heat energy. Energy is sometimes measured in "calories."

Enzyme: This is a protein molecule that acts as a "helper" in thousands of chemical reactions in the body, including: digestion of food, hormone production, muscle-cell repair—literally thousands and thousands of things.

Epigallocatechin Gallate: Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) is a catechin that is the main active component of green tea. It is a potent antioxidant and may also increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes. EGCG may be involved in appetite reduction and the control of obesity. It may lower blood pressure, regulate bowel habits and protect against cavities. EGCG may also protect against respiratory and digestive infections, the growth of tumors, and may have anti-inflammatory properties.

Equal®: Equal is a brand name sweetener that consists of aspartame (see "aspartame") with small amounts of dextrose and maltodextrin as bulk fillers. The tablet form also contains a small amount of lactose to add bulk to the product, and aid in the formation of the tablet.

Ergogenic: This word refers to something that can increase muscular work capacity. Natural supplements that can increase some aspect of athletic performance are said to be ergogenic or performance-enhancing aids.

Erythritol: Erythritol is a sugar alcohol with unique absorption and elimination processes that do not require its metabolism. As a result, erythritol offers a negligible 0.2 calories per gram. Erythritol is rapidly absorbed into the small intestine due to its small molecular size and structure. Approximately 90% of erythritol is absorbed and excreted unchanged in the urine within a 24 hour period. Less than 5% of ingested erythritol reaches the large intestine. This means that the gaseous or laxative side effects that some other sugar alcohols produce are all but non-existent with erythritol. Thus, erythritol is uniquely qualified as a very low calorie bulk sweetener for formulating "light" and "reduced calorie" products.

Essential Fatty Acids: Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that the body cannot product on its own. There are two major categories of these fats, called linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, also known as "omega-6" and "omega-3" fatty acids, respectively. These two acids are found in varying concentrations in oils. For example, flaxseed oil is particularly high in omega-3’s, whereas safflower oil is very high in omega-6’s, although most unsaturated fats contain a little of both. The functions of EFAs are myriad, however there are a few specific functions that may impact bodybuilders and athletes in, especially in the case of a deficiency. EFAs are needed for the formation of vital hormone-like substances called "prostaglandins". Prostaglandins serve in many capacities, and are integrally involved in the production of various muscle-building growth hormones. They may also speed the rate at which your body burns fat and glucose (blood sugar) by increasing the body’s metabolic rate.

Evening Primrose Oil: Evening primrose oil is about 72% linoleic acid (an essential fatty acid), and also contains one of the highest concentrations of gamma-linoleic acid (GLA), classified technically as a non-essential fatty acid. Although the body can produce GLA, a large percentage of the population is unable to produce GLA effectively due to dietary deficiencies, alcohol abuse, medical conditions, or aging. Because of the relatively high concentration of GLA in evening primrose oil, this oil may help to make up for the body’s inability to produce an optimal amount of GLA. In clinical settings, evening primrose oil supplementation studies have demonstrated beneficial effects on prostaglandins (hormone-like chemicals), blood pressure, blood cholesterol, fat metabolism, liver function, weight loss, PMS, and the condition of hair and nails, among other effects.

Exogenous: This term refers to things originating outside of the body. For example, if you took a DHEA pill, it would be an "exogenous " source of that hormone.

 

Fat: This is one of the macronutrients. Fat contains nine calories per gram; it has the most calories of all the macronutrients. Dietary fats may also be referred to as lipids or triglycerides. Fats serve a variety of functions in the body; they act as structural components for all cell membranes, as well as supply necessary chemical substrates for hormone production. There are two types of fat—saturated "bad " fat and unsaturated "good" fat.

Fat-Free Mass (FFM): This refers to all portions of body tissues not containing fat. These tissues include all skeletal bones and muscles, skin, organs, and body water, as well as hair, blood, and lymph. Fat-free mass is a term used frequently in the texts of clinical studies. Often, an increase in fat-free mass equals an increase in skeletal muscle.

Fibersol: Fibersol is a soluble fiber product derived from maltodextrin (a derivative of corn), and manufactured as a food ingredient by an independent company. The type of Fibersol used in EAS products (called Fibersol II) is roughly 90% fiber.

Fish Oils, cold water: One of the main benefits of these oils is that cold water fish oils are high in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). These compounds, DHA and EPA are components of our cells, especially prevalent in cells found in the nervous system. Although DHA and EPA can be produced by the body, and thus are not considered "essential," the effect of aging, poor diet, alcohol abuse, or stress can hinder the body’s ability to produce these special fats. Some effects of DHA and EPA supplementation (from cold water fish oils) may include reduced likelihood of cardiovascular disease, lower triglycerides, lower blood pressure, greater production of beneficial prostaglandins (prostaglandins are hormone-like substances). Cold water fish that are highest in DHA and EPA (at least 15%) are salmon, sardines, mackerel, trout, and eel.

Flaxseed oil: Flaxseed oil contains the greatest concentration of omega-3 fatty acids of any oil. Omega-3 fatty acids are "essential," meaning that they cannot be produced by the body. Thus, these fatty acids must be obtained from the diet. The addition of omega-3-rich sources to the diet is important because these fats are required for human health, yet the majority of the population does not consume an optimal amount of these beneficial fats. This omega-3 fatty acid deficiency is due to two main reasons: 1.) most Americans do not consume very many omega-3 rich foods (cold water fish, hemp oil, soybeans, walnuts, and dark green leaves), and 2.) omega-3 fatty acids are easily destroyed during the manufacturing and processing of foods, since they can be denatured by exposure to light, heat, or oxygen.

Fractionated Palm Kernel Oil: A fat molecule consists of a "backbone" (glycerol) attached to three fatty acid tails (see "triglyceride"). This molecule can be broken up, or "fractionated," then separated based on physical properties such as consistency or melting point. In this way, manufacturers of products are able to produce a product that melts at the correct temperature ("in your mouth," for instance), but stay solid at a lower temperature (i.e. "in your hand"). Nutritionally, some parts of the "fractionated" fat are better than the original oil, and other fractions of the oil are worse for bodily health. Oils commonly used for fractionation include coconut, palm, palm kernel, cotton, avocado, peanut, and soybean, among others.

Free Radicals: These are troublemakers. They`re highly reactive molecules possessing unpaired electrons that are produced during metabolism of food and energy production, and are believed to contribute to the molecular damage and death of vital body cells. Free radicals may be a factor in aging or disease and may ultimately contribute to death. Antioxidants help neutralize free radicals.

Free-Form Amino Acids: These are structurally unlinked, individual amino acids.

Fructooligosaccharide (Oligofructose): Fructooligosaccharide (FOS or oligofructose) is a soluble fiber found in a variety of common plants, fruits, and vegetables. Although you may extract it from any of these sources, the most common source used in supplements is derived from chicory root, due to its naturally high FOS concentration. This ingredient is commonly used as an "artificial" sweetener since FOS is sweet to the taste, but the body cannot utilize its calorie content.

Fructose (Fruktos, Fruit Sugar, or Levulose): Fructose, or "fruit sugar," is a simple sugar (a monosaccharide). The structure of fructose is identical to glucose, except that the chemical orientation is "inverted". This sugar, when combined with glucose yields sucrose, or table sugar. As the sweetest natural sugar, less fructose is needed to properly sweeten manufactured foods as compared to sucrose. Since fructose has the same caloric density as sucrose and less fructose is required to properly sweeten foods, it is possible to avoid some of the empty calories normally found in sucrose-sweetened products. As an additional benefit, fructose elicits only a minimal glycemic response in the body, and thus will not cause a rapid increase in blood sugar and insulin levels. Also, the low glycemic response elicited by fructose in comparison to other carbohydrate sources reduces the susceptibility of the calories being stored as fat. Unlike many artificial sweeteners, it is safe to bake with fructose. Dietary fructose may be derived from several complex carbohydrate sources, but is usually isolated from corn.

Full-Spectrum Amino Acids: These are supplements that contain a combination of all of the essential amino acids.

 

 

Gamma-Linoleic Acid (GLA): Due to its structure, GLA is a member of the Omege-6 family of fatty acids (see "Omega-6"). GLA is classified technically as a non-essential fatty acid. Although the body can produce GLA, a large percentage of the population is unable to produce GLA effectively due to dietary deficiencies, alcohol abuse, medical conditions, or aging. In clinical settings, evening primrose oil (a good source of GLA) supplementation studies have demonstrated beneficial effects on prostaglandins (hormone-like chemicals), blood pressure, blood cholesterol, fat metabolism, liver function, weight loss, PMS, and the condition of hair and nails, among other effects. The richest source of GLA is borage oil (20%+), followed by black currant seed oil (15%) and evening primrose oil (9%).

Garcinia Cambogia: see "Hydroxy Citric Acid"

Gelatin: Gelatin is an odorless, colorless, tasteless thickening agent, obtained from the fibrous insoluble protein collagen. In nature, collagen is commonly found as a major constituent of skin, bones and connective tissue. Dietary gelatin is derived from pork, fish, or beef. Although most people associate gelatin with Jell-O®, gelatin is actually used in a variety of processed foods. For example, gelatin can be used as a binding agent, thickener, stabilizer, or emulsifier. As an ergogenic aid, bodybuilders often consume gelatin for joint health. Another common use for gelatin is making vitamin or supplement capsules.

Genistein: Genistein is an isoflavone, or plant hormone, found in soybeans. Research indicates that this product may have several health benefits including the prevention of some cancers in post-menopausal women, regulation of hormones, may control PMS, and may promote skeletal and cardiovascular health.

Glucagon: This is a hormone that is responsible for helping maintain proper blood sugar levels. When blood sugar levels go too low, glucagon activates glucose production in the liver, as well as regulates the release of glycogen from muscle cells. Eventually it may cause the catabolism of muscle cell proteins for glucose. This is considered a catabolic hormone.

Glucomannan: Glucomannan is a water-soluble dietary fiber that is derived from konnyaku root (same family as the yam). Glucomannan delays stomach emptying, leading to a more gradual absorption of dietary sugar; this may reduce the elevation of blood sugar levels that is typical after a meal (particularly a high-carbohydrate meal). This effect may help to minimize the chance of excess blood sugar being stored as body fat. Glucomannan may also assist in weight loss by occupying space in the stomach, thereby making a person feel full. This may help one to avoid over consumption of foods and excess calories.

Gluconeogenesis: Gluconeogenesis is the process of creating glucose molecules from sources other than glycogen (proteins and fatty acids). Gluconeogenesis occurs primarily in the liver and is triggered by the action of glucagon. The kidney can also carry out gluconeogenesis, but to a limited extent.

Glucose: This is the simplest sugar molecule and is a major source of fuel for the body. Carbohydrates are broken down by the digestive system into glucose which is then carried by the blood throughout the body. Simple sugars release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream whereas many complex carbohydrates release glucose at a slower rate.

Glucose Disposal Agent: A nutrient or complex of nutrients that has the ability to increase insulin sensitivity, thus allowing circulating blood glucose to be readily deposited in to target tissues.

Glutamic acid: Glutamic acid (glutamate) is a non-essential (can be made by the body) amino acid used by the body for a variety of functions. In nutritional supplements, such as in Myoplex® Deluxe, Glutamic Acid is present as a glutamine precursor. Glutamine may also be converted to glutamic acid. Therefore, glutamine and glutamic acid are somewhat interconvertable. Glutamic acid is also a component of folic acid and a precursor of glutathione, an antioxidant. Glutamic acid may play a role in the normal function of the heart and the prostate. Under normal circumstances, humans can meet their glutamate requirements directly from the diet or by making it from precursor molecules (e.g. glutamine) so only an individual deficient in protein would become deficient in glutamic acid. Food sources of glutamic acid include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products, as well as some protein-rich plant foods. Glutamic acid is also an important neurotransmitter involved with the transportation of potassium across the blood-brain barrier and is important in the metabolism of sugars and fats.

Glutamine: See "L-Glutamine"

Glutathione: Glutathione is an antioxidant produced by the body that is important in several antioxidant metabolic cycles as well as assisting in the prevention of malignant growths. Dietary sources such as whey protein may be a stimulus for glutathione production. Other stimuli for glutathione include NAC (n-acetyl cysteine) and glutamine.

Gluten (wheat gum): Gluten is an insoluble protein obtained from wheat, rye, barley, oats, and other grains. The presence of gluten in foods allows flour to rise. Over 3 million Americans are allergic to this product. People with Celiac Disease, in particular, are severely allergic to gluten, and experience severe reactions following consumption.

Glycemic Index (GI): This is a measure of the extent to which a food raises the blood sugar (glucose) level as compared with white bread, which has a GI of 100. Glucose (dextrose) scores a 138, brown rice a 81, and fructose (fruit sugar) is all the way down at 31.

Glycemic Response Modifier: A nutrient or complex of nutrients that has the ability to slow down the absorption rate of ingested carbohydrates, thus lowering the glycemic index.

Glycerine (Glycerol): Glycerol is classified as a sugar alcohol, and is primarily used in the body as the backbone to which fatty acids are attached (see "triglyceride"). In food products, glycerol (derived from vegetable oil) is often used as a low calorie sweetener due to its sweet taste and minimal caloric yield to the body. Glycerol inherently contains calories (like any sugar alcohol), yet it is not usually used as an energy source. Instead, glycerol usually passes through the digestive system unchanged (much like a fiber). Alternatively, it is also possible for the body to use dietary glycerol as a fatty acid carrier, even though the body can itself produce glycerol naturally.

Glycogen: This is the primary storage form of carbohydrate energy (glucose), in the body. Glycogen is a complex matrix of glucose molecules stored in muscles and in the liver. When your muscles are full of glycogen, they look and feel full and "pumped".

Glycomacropeptides (GMP): Whey protein is obtained from milk from one of the initial steps in the process of making cheese. During this process, one of the milk proteins, called casein (kappa casein) is split. GMP is the resulting composition of a certain amino acid sequence from this product. GMP supplementation has been shown to increase levels of cholecystokinin, a stomach secretion that plays a role in regulating feelings of fullness. GMP also may help to prevent dental cavities, and protect against viruses and bacteria.

Green Tea: Green Tea offers several beneficial effects, including glucose disposal, antioxidant protection, and thermogenic activity. Green tea’s thermogenic properties stem from the fact that it naturally contains caffeine (see "caffeine"), and as such will carry the same benefits as caffeine itself. Green tea is also a valuable ingredient due to its ability to support glucose disposal into the muscle cells, thus preventing rapid secretion of the hormone insulin. Although insulin is a potent hormone for muscle gain, it may prevent or slow thermogenesis (the liberation of calories as heat) is somewhat dependent upon stable blood sugar levels and the absence of insulin. Therefore, for most people trying to lose fat, it is a necessary to manage insulin levels. Since green tea has the ability to support glucose disposal into the muscle cell, this product may help to keep the body in fat burning mode by maintaining consistent blood sugar levels, minimizing insulin release.

Growth Hormone (GH): This is a hormone that is naturally released by the pituitary gland; it is an anabolic hormone. GH promotes muscle growth and the breakdown of bodyfat for energy. GH levels are high in children and in teens, but diminish greatly after age 20. Some sports supplements are supposed to increase the amount of GH that is naturally released in the body, and therefore create an anabolic state and increase fat burning in the athlete. Unfortunately, most have little effect.

Growth Hormone (Human Growth Hormone): Growth hormone (GH) is an anabolic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, and influences growth and development in children, increases in protein synthesis in skeletal muscle, bodyfat loss, and gains in muscle size and strength. GH is also involved in regulating substrate utilization by increasing the availability of fat that can be used as fuel, thus sparing blood glucose and muscle glycogen. Some of these effects may be mediated through a related hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I). Although the total level of GH fluctuates throughout the day, highest levels are observed at night while one is sleeping. This may be related to the ensuing tissue repair that occurs at this time. GH levels are also higher following resistance exercise, most prominently when compound joint exercises are performed with high resistance and short rest intervals. Similarly, GH is elevated following aerobic exercise, especially in women. GH secretion is positively correlated with diet (carbohydrate/protein consumption before and after workout), and sleep. Women also experience high levels of GH during menstruation (which results in even higher resting GH levels than those experienced by men). Conversely, GH is negatively correlated with age, and alcohol consumption.

Guar Gum: Guar gum is a complex polysaccharide obtained from the milled endosperm of the guar bean (also known as cyamposis tetragonaloba). It is used in foods to increase the viscosity of liquids and as a suspension agent to prevent ingredients from settling to the bottom of the container. This product may also increase the shelf life of products, and improve the texture, resulting in a smoother mouth feel. Guar gum is often combined with xanthan gum, since these products tend to compliment each other.

Guggulsterones (Guggulipids, Commiphora Mukul): Guggulsterones come from an Indian tree called Guggul. This tree secretes a resinous sap that may be purified for the biologically active compound, guggulsterones. This compound may increase thyroid hormone levels, thus promoting bodyfat loss. Guggulsterones may also help to decrease triglycerides (fats) and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels while increasing HDL (good) cholesterol levels in the body. Likely the most effective guggulsterone products are those that are standardized for Type E and Z guggulsterones. Although not a stimulant itself, this product is often combined with other stimulants in dietary supplements geared for fat-loss.

HDL: This stands for "high-density lipoprotein." It`s one of the subcategories of cholesterol—typically thought of as the "good" cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is the form that is typically used to clear fats from the system, therefore not lending itself to the formation of crud in your arteries that can cause heart attacks. You may be able to raise your HDL cholesterol levels by ingesting quality unsaturated fats like flaxseed oil. Exercise has also been shown to increase HDL levels.

HGH: see "Growth Hormone"

High Fructose Corn Syrup: Corn syrup is composed of a combination of monosaccharides (i.e. dextrose and fructose) and disaccharides (i.e. maltose). High fructose corn syrup simply is corn syrup that contains a high ratio of fructose in comparison to other types of corn syrup. Since fructose is the sweetest sugar (about 75% sweeter than sucrose (table sugar)), high fructose corn syrup is a very sweet tasting substance. Because of its sweet taste and ability to moisten foods, high fructose corn syrup is often substituted for sucrose in manufactured foods, which in effect reduces the caloric content since less high fructose corn syrup is needed compared to sucrose to properly sweeten foods.

High Maltose Corn Syrup (maltodextrin): High maltose corn syrup is produced through the same method as regular corn syrup (see "corn syrup"), except that the starch conversion process (where corn starch is converted to corn syrup) is carried out for only a short period of time. This yields a corn syrup product that is high is maltose (a disaccharide), and low in monosaccharides like dextrose. Because this substance is lower in dextrose, high maltose corn syrup does not taste as sweet compared to other forms of corn syrup.

High Oleic Canola Oil: This is a monounsaturated oil that is high in omega-9 fatty acids, a non-essential fatty acid produced by the body (for example, skin glands produce omega-9 fatty acids). Oleic acid is a fairly stable molecule, and may help to keep arteries supple.

High Oleic Sunflower Oil: High oleic sunflower oil is simply sunflower oil infused with a higher than normal concentration of oleic acids. Oleic acid is a relatively stable monounsaturated 18-carbon fatty acid, unsaturated due to a "missing" hydrogen in the middle of the fatty acid chain. Oleic acid is found mainly in olive, almond, peanut, pistachio, pecan, canola, avocado, hazelnut, cashew, and macadamia oils; in adipose tissue, and in cell membranes. Oleic acid is also produced naturally by the body, and secreted from skin cells.

Hormones: These are substances in the body that are very important to bodybuilders. Two important hormone-producing organs are the pituitary gland and the testes. Hormones regulate various biological processes through their ability to activate or deactivate enzymes. Examples of this regulation are the effect of the testosterone hormone on the enzymatic activity relating to protein production of muscle cells. Other hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, control blood sugar levels and energy storage in the body. Hormones can be made of proteins.

Hot Fill: Product is heated to pasteurization temperature (190 degrees Fahrenheit) and filled into the container (usually a glass container). The hot product will then kill any microorganisms growing inside the container thus reducing the population of bacteria inside the package. The use of preservatives (such sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate) are normally used in this type of processing technology. Also, the pH has to be below 4.4 (acidic). Acids, such as lemon juice and vinegar are natural preservatives. After filling, the bottles are cooled slowly by water mist.

Human Growth Hormone (HGH, or somatotropin): see "Growth Hormone"

Hydrogenated Oils : Hydrogenation is the process of making a fatty acid more "saturated". Food manufacturers use hydrogenated oils mainly for functional reasons. Hydrogenated oils allow for a longer shelf life, and allow for a soft, or spreadable texture. Oils that are commonly hydrogenated include canola, cottonseed, and soybean, although others can be used.

Hydrolysis: This is a chemical reaction where water reacts with a substance to change it to another substance or substances. For instance, if you add sodium acetate to water, it hydrolyses into sodium ions and acetate ions.

Hydrolyzed Gelatin: A breakdown product of gelatin. Hydrolyzed gelatin is a cholesterol-free protein source (about 95% pure protein) obtained from the fibrous insoluble protein collagen, commonly found in nature as a major constituent of skin, bones and connective tissue. Dietary gelatin is usually derived from pork, fish, or beef. In foods, the addition of hydrolyzed gelatin produces a smooth textured product that results in good mouth feel and moistness. Specifically, EAS uses hydrolyzed gelatin as a supplementary protein source, to keep bars soft and to improve the texture of particular supplements. In and of itself, the amino acid profile may not be considered optimal compared to other proteins, such as milk and soy proteins. However, products that contain a protein blend such as those containing calcium caseinate, milk protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, whey protein isolate and hydrolyzed gelatin, delivers all the essential and nonessential amino acids and is considered a profile rich in all the amino acids necessary for muscle support and recovery. Hydrolyzed geleatin’s main benefit is to complement the protein blend and for functionality with the bar.

Hydrolyzed Wheat Gluten: Wheat gluten is the protein complex found in wheat endosperm (essentially the inner core of a grain of wheat). This protein complex is hydrolyzed (or "chopped up into shorter chains of amino acids) to yield glutamine peptides.

Hydrolyzed Whey: Hydrolysis is a process breaking large peptides (protein chains) into smaller peptides. Thus, hydrolyzed whey consists of small peptide chains derived from whey protein. Because hydrolyzed proteins are partially broken down, hydrolyzed proteins tend to move through the digestive system rapidly.

Hydroxy Citric Acid (HCA or Garcinia Cambogia): HCA is a standardized compound from the rind of garcinia cambogia, a purple, pumpkin-like fruit native to India and Southeast Asia. It may control the appetite and inhibit the conversion of carbohydrates into bodyfat. This ingredient may found under the trade names of Citrimax® or Citrin K®.

Hypertrophy: This means to increase in size. Muscular hypertrophy is the increase in size of the muscle cells.

Hypoglycemia: This is low blood sugar/glucose levels, resulting in anxiety, fatigue, perspiration, delirium, and in severe cases, coma. Hypoglycemia occurs most commonly in diabetics, where it is due to either insulin overdose or inadequate intake of carbohydrates. Temporary hypoglycemia is common in athletes and can be overcome with the ingestion of carbohydrates.

Immunoglobulins: These are a class of structurally related proteins characterized by two pairs of polypeptide chains (strings of amino acids) linked together. This class includes all antibodies. Conversely, all immunoglobulins likely are also antibodies, although we can’t be sure since new immunoglobulins are constantly being discovered. Certain dietary sources such as whey protein contain immunoglobulins. This protein also stimulates the release of immunoglobulins.

Incomplete Proteins: These are proteins that lack or are low in one or more of the essential amino acids.

Insulin: This is an anabolic hormone secreted by the pancreas that aids the body in maintaining proper blood sugar levels and promoting glycogen storage. Insulin secretion speeds the movement of nutrients through the bloodstream and into muscle for growth. When chronically elevated, as with a high-carbohydrate diet, insulin can cause you to gain fat. However, short bursts of insulin, caused by consuming high-glycemic carbs, may help enhance the uptake of nutrients like creatine and glutamine by muscle cells.

Insulin Amplifier: A nutrient or complex of nutrients that has the ability to increase the secretion of insulin.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I): IFG-I is a 70 amino acid polypeptide anabolic (muscle building) hormone. This hormone is usually released 8 to 29 hours following the release of growth hormone (GH). Factors that influence the release of IGF- I include nutritional status (consumption of protein and carbohydrates before and after a workout tend to increase IGF-I secretion), insulin levels, and possibly resistance exercise (in men only). Although the exact function of this hormone is difficult to determine, IGF-I appears to be involved in amino acid transport, protein synthesis, collagen synthesis, glycogen synthesis: all important elements needed for consistent gains in muscle mass.

Iodine: Iodine (I) is a mineral that is important in the functioning of the thyroid gland. It is important in metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It may influence growth, nervous system functioning, and circulation. Goiter is the common result of iodine deficiency. Symptoms include listlessness and sluggishness. Food sources include iodized salt, fish, and shellfish.

Ion-Exchange: Ion-exchange is one of the most advanced techniques in use today to extract out the unwanted components of whey (lactose, sodium, cholesterol, carbohydrates, and fat). Ion-exchange is a process that takes advantage of specific electron charges inherent in the raw whey to separate these components. This results in a very pure whey protein product. (also see "whey protein")

Iron: Iron (Fe) is a mineral that is part of hemoglobin in red blood cells. Iron is needed for immune system support and to increase enzymes necessary for the production of energy. Deficiencies in iron intake may lead to anemia. Symptoms include listlessness, fatigue, irritability, and heart palpitations during exertion. Food sources include meat (liver is very high), poultry, fish, eggs, green leafy vegetables, fruit, milk, whole grain cereals, and potatoes. Cast iron cookware can provide iron, as well. Vitamin C enhances the absorption of iron from non-animal foods.

Isoflavone: An isoflavone is simply a plant hormone, or chemical messenger found in plants. There are literally dozens of different types of isoflavones. Many are used as dietary supplements for various reasons such as the promotion of health, or for building lean body mass.

Ketogenic Diet: A ketogenic diet is a diet that induces the production of "ketone bodies," an alternative fuel source to glucose (glucose is the fuel preferred by all tissues in the body including the brain). This heightened production of ketone bodies is accomplished by following an ultra-low carbohydrate diet. Compared to glucose, ketone bodies are an inefficient fuel source, and thus are burned more quickly compared to glucose - one reason why ketogenic diets are used by those looking to lose bodyfat. The avoidance of carbohydrates also allows dieters to manage insulin levels, a hormone that can be involved in fat storage. Other proposed reasons why people lose weight while following ketogenic diets is that people simply eat less when they cut out their favorite carbohydrate-laden foods, or lose mostly water weight. While effective for fat loss in the short term, health care professionals have criticized ketogenic diets for the health risks inherent in following low carbohydrate regimens. Specifically, research studies have suggested that such a diet may lead to increased cortisol levels (an indication of stress), decreased immune function, and vitamin and mineral imbalances. The long-term implications of following a ketogenic diet are not known.

Ketones: These are organic chemical compounds resulting from the breakdown of triglycerides. They are used as an energy source in the body during very-low-carbohydrate diets. 

Kosher: Kosher is a set of dietary laws originally set up by religious sects that govern food-preparation practices. For example, a kosher kitchen (which must be approved by certain rabbinical organizations) must use separate utensils and cookware for meats and dairy products. Although kosher products are often associated with certain religions, many people buy kosher products for other reasons. Specifically, many people choose kosher products because they are less likely to be contaminated with microbiological pathogens, and contain fewer preservatives.

L-Carnitine: Carnitine is an amino acid that may aid the body by facilitating the oxidation and transport of fatty acids across the cellular membrane into the "energy production" organelle within cells, called mitochondria. Research has shown that carnitine may lower blood triglycerides and speed overall fat metabolism within the body.

L-Glutamine (Glutamine): L-Glutamine is the most abundant free amino acid in muscle tissue. The body can manufacture glutamine, but under periods of stress (like intense workouts) glutamine becomes "conditionally essential." That means that in certain situations, like when one participates in intense exercise, the body may not be able to manufacture enough glutamine to meet the body’s demand. Supplemental L-glutamine has been shown to aid in recovery from workouts, may help to boost immune function, increase the body’s natural growth hormone secretion, promote "cell-volumization," and may have an anti-inflammatory effect.

L-Norephedrine (phenylpropanolamine, PPA): see "phenylpropanolamine"

L-Tyrosine: Tyrosine serves as a precursor to both norepinephrine and epinephrine. These two neurotransmitters are required to initiate the fat burning process, but that same process tends to deplete their stores. L-Tyrosine may aid the body in replenishing these important neurotransmitters, and may aid in keeping their levels in the "optimal" range and thus enhance the body’s thermogenic capabilities.

LDL: This stands for "low-density lipoprotein" and is a subcategory of cholesterol, typically thought of as the "bad" cholesterol. LDL is the type of cholesterol that circulates throughout the bloodstream and may cause heart disease. Levels of LDL cholesterol can be elevated by ingestion of saturated fats and a lack of exercise.

Lactic Acid (Lactate): A natural byproduct of the cellular metabolism of glycogen. Its buildup is a primary cause of muscle fatigue. Lactic acid is produced, and broken down by our bodies continuously. However, during high intensity exercise (anaerobic), lactic acid tends to accumulate in muscles resulting in the burning sensation we feel. During lower intensity activities (aerobic), it is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water. Although lactic acid accumulation is partially to blame for decreased muscle performance and fatigue, lactic acid is not likely responsible for the delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) we feel one to two days following a workout.

Lactitol: Lactitol is a sugar alcohol derived from lactose, a sugar found in milk. It absorbed only by the large intestine, so the body yields very few calories from this product, about 2 calories per gram (carbohydrates typically yield 4 calories per gram). Lactitol is included in products as a sweetener, since it tastes similar to sucrose, but yields fewer calories to the body. This sweetener is highly stable, and is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

Lean Body Mass (LBM): This is another term that describes fat-free mass (see fat-free mass).

Lecithin: A versatile substance, lecithin is a component of all living cells, is a common ingredient in manufacturing foods, and is often used as a health aid. Lecithin belongs to a class known as phospholipids, as it is mostly composed of three bound units: two fatty acid chains and a phosphate. Phospholipids make up the fatty "sheath" that surrounds all cells, which is known as the "lipid bilayer." Therefore, lecithin is one of the components that make up this cell membrane. For this reason, organs such as the liver, reproductive tract, muscles, and the brain are largely composed of this substance. Lecithin is found in large quantities in eggs and soybeans. Today, lecithin is primarily extracted from soybeans, and is used commercially in the manufacture of processed foods, mainly as an emulsifier, fat replacer/extender, and as a dispersing agent. Lecithin is often marketed as a health aid, and is claimed to:

• aid in memory
• aid in the breakdown of fats and cholesterol
• prevent arterial congestion
• distribute bodyweight
• support the immune system
• clean the liver
• purify the kidneys

The validity of all these claims is not totally substantiated. We do know, however, that a primary component of lecithin is choline. Mounting evidence linking choline intake with normal liver function in humans prompted the Food and Nutrition Board to categorize choline as an essential nutrient. Therefore, choline is now included on the Dietary Reference Intake guidelines. Furthermore, choline and lecithin have also been shown to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease by improving lipid profiles. Another large component of lecithin is called phosphatidylserine (PS), and is responsible for the marketing claims that lecithin increases memory and decreases cortisol. For more information, see "phosphatidylserine."

Limiting Factor: This is an element that prevents a process or reaction from taking place. For example, a lack of protein in the diet can be a "limiting factor" for muscle growth.

Linoleic Acid: This is an essential fatty acid and, more specifically, an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. Good sources of this fatty acid are safflower oil and soybean oil.

Linolenic Acid: This is an essential fatty acid and, more precisely, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid. It is found in high concentrations in flaxseed oil.

Lipid: This is simply another name for dietary fats or triglycerides.

Lipogenesis: This means making bodyfat (literally translated "fat producing").

Lipogenic: This means making bodyfat (literally translated "fat producing"). This is bad.

Lipolysis: This term refers to the chemical breakdown of bodyfat by enzymes that results in stored bodyfat being used as fuel by the body. This is good.

Lipolytic: This term is usually used to describe something with fat-burning effects. It literally means "to disintegrate fat."

Liposome: A liposome is a spherical, fatty "bubble" that is used to encase ingredients in order to improve absorption of particular ingredients. Because liposomes are able to freely pass into cells, they are able to deliver their "cargo" unharmed, directly into cells where the ingredients may be released and used. Liposomal delivery systems are common in the pharmaceutical industry, and are used in some advanced dietary supplements in order to provide an efficient delivery of particular nutrients to cells.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): This is a powerful hormone that, in men, stimulates the testes to make testosterone. In gals, LH induces ovulation.

Ma Huang: Ma Huang is a Chinese herb that contains ephedrine alkaloids. These "alkaloids" are adrenaline-like substances. The extract "ephedrine" from this herb was once used as a thermogenic agent in ergogenic products however; this is now a banned substance.

Macronutrients: These are the nutrients that we ingest in large (macro means "big") quantities on a regular basis. These include proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and, I guess, water. All of these macronutrients are necessary to sustain life.

Magnesium: Magnesium (Mg) is a mineral that is important in nerve functioning. It is needed for bone development, muscle relaxation, and metabolism of sugar in the liver. Deficiencies in magnesium intake may lead to muscle spasms, tremors, convulsions, vascular disease, and even psychiatric problems. Typical food sources are milk products, meat, fish, nuts, seeds, soybeans, oatmeal, rice, green leafy vegetables, and corn meal. Magnesium content can be greatly reduced when foods are processed or cooked. 

Malabsorption: This big word means bad absorption of nutrients from the digestive tract. This can result in vitamin deficiencies, loss of weight, and poor health. Malabsorption can be caused by intestinal diseases or lack of digestive enzymes.

Maltitol: A form of sugar alcohol that is produced through the hydrogenation (filling the open bonds of a chemical structure with hydrogen atoms) of maltose. Maltitol’s high sweetness allows it to be used without other sweeteners although it contains only 2.1 calories per gram. Although maltitol is often used to replace sugars in the manufacture of sugar-free foods, it may also be used to replace fat as it gives a creamy texture to food.

Maltodextrin: see "High Maltose Corn Syrup"

Maltose (Malt Sugar): Maltose is a disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules. This sugar is found predominantly as a breakdown product of starches, and is used mainly as a fuel source.

Manganese: Manganese (Mn) is a mineral that is important in the production of enzymes needed for the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. Manganese facilitates bone development, nerve functioning, and reproductive functioning. Deficiencies in manganese intake can lead to birth defects, bone deformities, convulsions, seizures, and immune system dysfunction. Food sources are nuts, seeds, avocado, seaweed, whole grains, oatmeal, and whole wheat. Manganese is poorly absorbed in the intestine.

Mateine: Mateine is a purine alkaloid found in Yerba Mate. Like caffeine (a common purine alkaloid), it has the ability to relax smooth muscle (i.e. the blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the bladder, or the uterus). Mateine stimulates the central nervous system, like caffeine, but it is not habit-forming or addicting. It may stimulate a weakened and depressed nervous system or sedate an overexcited one. So, unlike caffeine, it induces better, not worse, attributes of sleep like regulating cycles and reducing fatigue. Studies show that caffeine sensitive individuals can drink mateine with no adverse reactions. Mateine is a mild diuretic, and it may relax peripheral blood vessels, thereby reducing blood pressure. Mateine may enhance the body’s ability to maintain aerobic glycolysis (breakdown of carbohydrates) during exercise for longer periods of time thereby reducing the buildup of lactic acid during exercise. Mateine may enhance physical activity, may improve coordination, mental alertness and acuity without side effects such as nervousness and jitters.

Meal-Replacement Powders (MRPs): These are a category of supplements which contain protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and other key nutrients which are used to replace a regular-food meal for purposes of weight loss, weight gain, or increasing dietary nutrient intake. These supplements may also be referred to as "total-nutrition products," "engineered foods," or "superfoods."

Medium Chain Triglycerides: A triglyceride molecule consists of three fatty acid tails. These fatty acid tails are attached to a backbone called glycerin (see "triglycerides"). A regular triglyceride (the type found in adipose tissue) contains "long chain" fatty acids. "Medium chain" fatty acids, on the other hand, are shorter in length compared to their long chain siblings (thus medium chain fatty acid tails have fewer carbons in the chain). These unique saturated fats are not found in nature in a concentrated form. Rather, medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) are manufactured from tropical oils (usually coconut oil) through a process called fractionation (see "fractionation"). As a result of their smaller size, MCTs have special properties. Specifically, MCTs are more easily absorbed, digested, and utilized as energy compared to regular long chain triglycerides. MCTs also have numerous applications in bodybuilding and sport performance. They are often used as part of a low carb (ketogenic) diet since MCTs may provide a quick boost of energy, do not affect insulin sensitivity, and are readily able to convert to ketones, an alternative fuel source. Further, MCTs have been promoted as a fat loss oil due to their ability to stimulate thermogenesis while on a ketogenic diet (see "thermogenesis") and increase growth hormone levels. Also, in contrast to regular saturated fats, MCTs are not likely to be converted to bodyfat. (also see "ketogenic diets") MCTs are also popular with endurance athletes on a moderate carbohydrate diet since MCTs are calorically dense, easily digested, and do not elicit much of an insulin response. Some studies indicate that a diet high in MCTs (greater than 50 grams), combined with carbohydrates may increase endurance performance.

Metabolic Rate: This refers to the rate you convert energy stores into working energy in the body. In other words, it’s how fast your "whole system" runs. The metabolic rate is controlled by a number of factors, including: muscle mass (the greater your muscle mass, the greater your metabolic rate), caloric intake, exercise, and use of stimulant or depressant chemicals.

Metabolism: This is a frequently used term that refers to the utilization of nutrients by the body for both anabolic and catabolic processes. It`s the process by which substances come into the body and the rate at which they are utilized.

Micellar Casein: This protein is also known as "native milk protein". Micellar casein is extracted from milk through a physical separation process (filtration) that requires less heat than what is used in the production of calcium or sodium caseinate. In addition to being "slow-digesting", micellar casein offers flavor and mouthfeel to food products.

Microfiltration: Microfiltration is one of the most advanced techniques in use today to extract out the unwanted components of whey (lactose, sodium, cholesterol, carbohydrates, and fat). Microfiltration is a process that actually sorts out these components physically, by passing the raw whey through microscopic filters. This results in a very pure whey protein product. (also see "whey protein")

Micronutrients: These are dietary nutrients which we ingest in relatively small (micro means "small") amounts compared to macronutrients. Examples of micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. Many micronutrients are essential dietary nutrients that perform vital functions in the body. Micronutrients are typically ingested in gram quantities or less.

Milk Protein Isolate: Milk protein isolate is a mixture of the two proteins found in milk (whey and casein). This protein boasts a strong amino acid profile derived from both its whey and casein components. Further, since milk protein isolate contains whey and casein, it likely retains many of the functional properties of both whey and casein. (also see "whey" and "casein")

Milk Proteins: see "casein" and "whey"

Minerals: Minerals are inorganic (non-living) compounds found naturally occurring from geological sources (the ground). They are essential for human life and play a role in many vital metabolic processes. Minerals are part of the basic elements found in nature and are included in the Periodic Table of Elements. They have a crystalline structure, a definite chemical composition, and a consistent atomic arrangement.

Mitochondria: Commonly referred to as the "powerhouse of cells". They contain special enzymes that enable cells to utilize oxygen for metabolism. Consistent aerobic training may increase the number of mitochondria in cells. This may allow for more efficient use of stored fats as fuel.

Molasses: Molasses is a thick syrup, obtained from raw sugar when processed. It has the same number of calories per volume as white granulated sugar.

Molybdenum: Molybdenum (Mb) is a mineral that is involved in the metabolism of DNA and RNA. Molybdenum is needed for normal cell function and nitrogen metabolism. It may help to prevent cavities, gum disorders, and anemia. It has been implicated in reducing the risk of certain forms of cancer. Deficiencies of molybdenum intake in older males have been linked to impotence. Milk, lima beans, spinach, liver, grain, peas and green leafy vegetables are sources molybdenum. An excess of copper, tungsten and sulfates can deplete molybdenum. Processing and cooking may reduce the molybdenum content of foods.

Monoglycerides: Monoglycerides consist of two parts: a "backbone" called glycerin (also known as glycerol) plus a "fatty acid tail" attached to that glycerin molecule. Actually, the glycerin molecule is not a fat at all; the chemical structure of glycerin is more similar to a carbohydrate. Nevertheless, glycerin is rarely utilized by the body as an energy source, and thus functions mainly as a fatty acid "carrier." Dietary monoglycerides included in foods are usually obtained from oils (often vegetable oil).

Monosaccharide: This is a simple carbohydrate made up of one sugar molecule. Examples are glucose and fructose.

Morbid Obesity: A condition of that exists when an individual is 50-100% or 100 pounds above their ideal body weight. Medical problems commonly resulting from untreated morbid obesity include diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, stroke, certain cancers, including breast and colon, depression, osteoarthritis. Affected people may gradually develop hypoxemia (decreased blood oxygen saturation) and have problems with sleep apnea (periodic cessation of breathing while asleep).

Muscle Fatigue: This is the failure of a muscle to continue to perform work, caused by muscle ATP depletion. Lactic-acid buildup also plays a role in muscle fatigue. Some natural supplements marketed to athletes have the ability to postpone muscle fatigue, thus increasing the work potential of the muscle—one of the most potent is creatine, which increases the availability of ATP, which is used for energy.

Myocyte: This means "muscle cell."

 

NAC: L-Cysteine, a simple amino acid, is a precursor of glutathione. NAC is a more stable form of L-Cysteine because it has been acetylized (has an acetyl group(CH3CO) attached*). While L-Cysteine loses approximately 85% of its sulfur group (part of the amino acid which helps to activate glutathione) in the digestion process, NAC loses only about 15%. Therefore, NAC provides more of the "active ingredient" that boosts glutathione production than can L-Cysteine alone. N-Acetyl-cysteine may be a better source of glutathione than taking glutathione itself, because less than half of supplemental glutathione gets out of the digestive system and into the body. In addition, NAC may bind to toxic heavy metals such as mercury and lead, to be removed from the body. (*see acetyl)

Naringin: Naringin is an extract from grapefruit, and has been shown in studies to have a potent effect on the half-life of caffeine in the body (extending the rate at which caffeine is broken down). As such, naringin may effectively prolong the thermogenic activity of caffeine in the body so that it may continue to exert a fat burning effect for a longer period of time. 

Natural: This term is often used to refer to foods or supplements that are not highly refined and which do not contain chemical fertilizers or artificial flavors and colors. The word natural has no legal definition in food supplementation though.

Natural Flavors: Natural flavors for use in food products are isolated from whole food sources. They enhance the overall aroma and flavor of the product yet offer negligle caloric contributions. Some common sources of natural flavors are: herbal extracts, fruit extracts (like orange peel and lemon peel), peanut extract, vanilla bean, and cocoa. Any EAS products that use peanut extract or any other nut extract in the flavoring will indicate that traces of nuts or seeds may be present.

Net Protein Utilization: (NPU) This is a method of evaluating protein quality by comparing the amount animals retained to the amount they ingested. Evaluation parameters are digestibility and essential amino acid content.

Neurotransmitter: This is a substance that is released at the end of one nerve cell when a nerve impulse arrives there. Neuro-transmitters diffuse across the gap to the next nerve cell and alter the membrane of that cell in such a way that it becomes less or more likely to fire. Examples include adrenaline and serotonin. Adrenaline is responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response and is an excitatory neurotransmitter; serotonin is the opposite—it makes you sleepy.

Nitrogen: This is an element that distinguishes proteins from other substances and allows them to form various structural units in our bodies, including enzymes and muscle cells.

Nitrogen Balance: This is when a person’s daily intake of nitrogen from proteins equals the daily excretion of nitrogen: a negative nitrogen balance occurs when the excretion of nitrogen exceeds the daily intake and is often seen when muscle is being lost. A positive nitrogen balance is often associated with muscle growth.

Nitrogen Retention: Of the three macromolecules (protein, carbohydrates, and fat), protein is the only one that contains nitrogen. Since muscle is the major protein pool in the body, "nitrogen retention" is an indication that the protein pool (i.e. total amount of muscle) has increased. Thus, when we say that, for example, MethoxyFactor HP may increase nitrogen retention, this is evidence that the product is helping the user in building muscle tissue.

Norephedrine: see "phenylpropanolamine"

NutraSweet®: NutraSweet® is a brand name artificial sweetener made by the NutraSweet Kelco Company. The product itself is simply 100% aspartame, a safe and popular sweetener (see "aspartame").

Nutrients: These are components of food that help nourish the body: that is, they provide energy or serve as "building materials." Nutrients are commonly categorized as macronutrients and micronutrients. The macronutrients are those that are ingested in large quantities (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water). The micronutrients are ingested in small or trace quantities (vitamins and minerals).

 

Octopamine: Octopamine (norsynephrine) is an extract of citrus aurantium otherwise known as Zhi Shi, or Bitter Orange. It acts as a neurotransmitter and may stimulate â-3 receptors, which are primarily found on brown adipose tissue. Octopamine may induce brown fat thermogenesis, thus aiding in the liberation of calories and body fat. It may accomplish all of this without the side effects that are typically associated with harsher thermogenic substances.

Omega-3: Omega-3 is a family of fatty acids (often called "superunsaturates"), related by chemical structure. All fatty acids in this family contain a "space" three carbons from the end of the fatty acid chain. Because of their fragility, omega-3 fatty acids are difficult to obtain from whole foods, and are virtually nonexistent in processed foods. Because processed foods make up a large percentage of Americans’ diets, Americans, by large, do not consume sufficient quantities of omega-3 fatty acids. The most important of these omega-3 fatty acids is probably alpha-linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid, meaning that it cannot be produced by the body. Symptoms of deficiency include growth retardation, weakness, impaired vision and learning ability, and difficulty with motor coordination, among others. Conversely, supplementation with an oil containing alpha-linolenic acid may improve skin texture, speed healing, increase energy, reduce inflammation, increase immune function, and decrease blood pressure. The best source of alpha-linolenic acid is flaxseed oil, followed by hemp oil. Other fatty acids included in the omega-3 family include stearidonic acid, eicosatetraenoic acid, clupanodonic acid, and the fish oils docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).

Omega-6: Omega-6 is a family of unsaturated fatty acids related by their chemical structure. Each fatty acid in this class contains a "space" in the chain six carbons from the end of the fatty acid. The most important of these from a dietary standpoint is linoleic acid (LA), which is an essential fatty acid that must be obtained from the diet. Because this fatty acid is somewhat unstable, and is broken down easily by light, heat, and oxygen, deficiencies are common in the United States, though they often are not diagnosed. Symptoms of deficiency are widespread, from skin irritation to liver degeneration to behavioral disturbances, etc. Although the functions of LA are not totally clear, LA is thought be involved in oxygen transfer, hemoglobin production, regeneration of tissue (as a component of the cell membrane), prostaglandin production, and may help with bodyfat loss. The richest sources of omega-6 fatty acids are safflower oil and sunflower oil. To a lesser degree, other sources include hemp, soybean, walnut, pumpkin, sesame, and flax oils. Another notable fatty acid in this group includes gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA is classified technically as a non-essential fatty acid since the body can produce this fatty acid intrinsically. A large percentage of the population is unable to produce GLA effectively due to dietary deficiencies, alcohol abuse, medical conditions, or aging. In clinical settings, evening primrose oil (a good source of GLA) supplementation studies have demonstrated beneficial effects on prostaglandins (hormone-like chemicals), blood pressure, blood cholesterol, fat metabolism, liver function, weight loss, PMS, and the condition of hair and nails, among other effects. The richest source of GLA is borage oil (20%+), followed by black currant seed oil (15%) and evening primrose oil (9%). Other fatty acids in the omega-6 family include dihomogamma linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, adrenic acid, and docosapentaenoic acid.

Omega-9: Omega-9 is a family of fatty acids classified by their chemical structure. Specifically, fatty acids in this group have a "gap" nine carbons from the end of the fatty acid chain. This family includes two major fatty acids called stearic acid and oleic acid. Stearic acid is one of the most abundant fatty acids found in animal fats. Although this fatty acid is a saturated fat, it is a "short chain" fatty acid (only 18 carbons long). Therefore, stearic acid is more likely to be used as energy than to be stored as fat. Also, it is readily converted to another omega-9 fatty acid, oleic acid, which is monounsaturated. Oleic acid is also the most abundant fatty acid found in nature, and is the primary oil produced by skin glands. Although supplementation is not necessary since oleic acid is a nonessential fat (produced naturally by the body), food sources rich in oleic acid include olive and almond oils, avocados, and peanut, pecan, cashew, and macadamia oils.

Optimal Nutrition: This is a term you need to know. It means the best possible nutrition; distinct from merely adequate nutrition that is characterized by no overt deficiency. This term describes people free from marginal deficiencies, imbalances, and toxicities, and who are not at risk for such. All athletes making an effort to increase muscle growth naturally must try to achieve optimal nutrition. In many cases, this requires supplementation of protein, vitamins, and minerals, and possibly other conditionally essential nutrients such as glutamine and creatine.

Over-The-Counter (OTC): This refers to substances that do not require a prescription to be obtained legally.

Oxidation: This is the process of cellular decomposition and breakdown. Oxidation produces free radicals.

Oxygen Debt: What this means to me is "out of breath." It’s a deficiency of oxygen in working muscles when performing exercise that is so demanding the cardiovascular system cannot deliver oxygen fast enough to the muscles to support aerobic metabolism. The debt must be repaid by rapid breathing after the activity slows down or stops. Oxygen debt leads to anaerobic metabolism, which leads to lactic-acid buildup and muscle fatigue.

PKU (Phenylketonuria): PKU is an inherited disease that leads to mental retardation and other developmental disabilities if left untreated in infants. Approximately one in every 12,000 to 15,000 babies is born with PKU in the U.S. The disease arises from the absence of a single enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase). This enzyme normally converts the essential amino acid, phenylalanine, to another amino acid, tyrosine. Failure of the conversion to take place results in a buildup of phenylalanine. Through a mechanism that is not well understood, the excess phenylalanine is toxic to the central nervous system and causes the severe problems normally associated with PKU. Foods recommended for those affected by PKU contain small amounts of protein, such as fruits and vegetables, limited amounts of cereal and grain products and special low protein products available through mail-order. High protein foods such as meat, fish, eggs, poultry, dairy products, nuts, peanut butter, legumes, soy products and products containing aspartame should be avoided. The first newborn screening test was developed in 1959. Today, all states routinely screen newborns for PKU. To test for PKU, the infant’s heal is pricked and a few drops of blood are taken. This blood sample is then tested in a state laboratory for abnormal amounts of phenylalanine. 

Palm Kernel Oil: Palm kernel oil is a "tropical" oil derived from the seeds of palm tree fruit. Because this is mainly a saturated oil (80%-85% saturated) and low in essential fatty acids, palm kernel oil may be heated without the risk of creating harmful breakdown products (as is the case with unsaturated oils, when heated). Although palm kernel oil is a saturated oil, some research conducted in areas ripe with live palm trees (where very fresh palm kernel oil is available) indicates that a diet high in tropical oils may decrease cholesterol levels, however other research contradicts these findings. As with other saturated oils, palm kernel oil (especially refined palm kernel oil) should be used in moderation or avoided in one’s diet.

Partially Hydrogenated Canola Oil: Hyrdogenation is a process used to covert fats into a spreadable form, or to increase shelf life of products. Partial hydrogenation for canola oil is achieved when some (but not all) of the fatty acid molecules in the product have been turned into fully saturated fats by adding a hydrogen to the "space" in the fatty acid chain.

Partially Hydrogenated Cottonseed Oil: Hyrdogenation is a process used to covert fats into a spreadable form, or to increase the shelf life of products. Partial hydrogenation for cottonseed oil is achieved when some (but not all) of the "parking spaces" in a fatty acid molecules have been filled with a hydrogen atom. This makes the oil less unsaturated. For example, hydrogenated cottonseed oil typically contains about 50% monounsaturated fat, and 21% polyunsaturated fat, compared to non-hydrogenated cottonseed oil which contains 18% and 52% monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, respectively.

Partially Hydrogenated Soybean Oil: Hydrogenation is a process used to convert fats into a solid spreadable form, or to increase shelf life of products. Partial hydrogenation is achieved when some (but not all) of the "spaces" in the fatty acid chain have been filled with a hydrogen molecule. This hydrogenation process results in a product that is higher in saturated fat and trans-fatty acids, thus destroying much of the nutritional value.

Peanut Butter: "Natural" peanut butter consists of only one product: unrefined peanuts crushed into a paste. Sometimes this paste is combined with salt. Natural peanut butter is a good source of monounsaturated fats and is also relatively high in the essential fatty acid gamma-linoleic acid. Note, however, that peanut butter is about 75% fat; the remainder of the calories come from carbohydrates and incomplete proteins. As such, peanut butter is not a good source of protein as many people erroneously believe. Also note that while natural peanut butter is a decent source of fat, processed peanut butters can be quite harmful to the health since the beneficial oils in peanut butter is hydrogenated. This results in a product that is higher in saturated fats and in trans-fatty acids.

Peanut Flour: Peanut flour is produced by extracting the oil from raw peanuts, then grinding the de-oiled residue into a powder. Peanut flours are often used in products to increase shelf life, to impart a particular texture, or to add a peanut flavor. Because the oil is extracted from the peanuts, peanut flours mainly consist of carbohydrates and protein. The fat content in peanut flour can range anywhere from 47% (partially deffatted) to 0% (fully defatted).

Peanuts: Unsalted, unrefined whole peanuts are a good source of monounsaturated ("good") fats. Peanuts are also low in saturated ("bad") fats. Whole peanuts are also relatively high in the essential fatty acid gamma-linoleic acid, and in dietary fiber. Note, however, that peanuts are only about 75% fat; the remainder of the calories come from carbohydrates and incomplete proteins. As such, peanuts are not a complete source of protein.

Pectin (Pectinic Acid): Pectin is a family of gelatinous substances extracted from fruits (usually from the rind of citrus fruits). In consumables, pectin is used in the preparation of jams, jellies, and similar foods to enhance viscosity.

Peptide: This is a compound made up of two or more amino acids. Protein molecules are broken down into peptides in the gut and absorbed in that form.

Phenlypropanolamine Hydrochloride, (PPA HCL): PPA is a chemical cousin to ephedrine. This is a stimulant, and used to be a common product found in "diet" drugs, included for its "thermogenic" effects (ability to cause the body to liberate calories as heat) and its ability to reduce appetite. PPA was also a common ingredient in various cold remedies, included as a bronchodilator (ability to expand lung openings). Although for some time this product was classified as "generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA, mounting evidence prompted the FDA to investigate further. Most recently, an FDA funded study http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/00/backgrd/3647b1_tab19.doc concluded that there was correlatory evidence that PPA usage may be related to the incidence of strokes in women. As such, the FDA has taken steps to remove this product from all over the counter drugs and dietary supplements, and is no longer available individually over-the-counter or by prescription.

Phenylalanine: Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid, or building block of protein, and is considered to be "essential" because the body cannot produce this amino acid on its own. Therefore, it must be obtained through the diet. Phenylalanine is quite versatile, as it can readily convert to other amino acids once in the body (such as tyrosine, a precursor to many neurotransmitters), or it can be converted to another amino acids in order to build a particular protein. This amino acid is also popular with dieters since it may cause a release in a stomach secretion that induces feelings of fullness.

A very small percentage of the population has a genetic condition called phenylketonuria, which is characterized by the inability to process phenylalanine (this condition is diagnosed at birth). Therefore, phenylketonurics must avoid foods that contain large amounts of phenylalanine. Since phenylalanine is one of the two amino acids that makes up aspartame, products that include aspartame must display a warning that states the product contains phenylalanine. This warning is intended mainly for phenylketonurics, as aspartame is a safe product for healthy individuals who are not pregnant. Aspartame is not recommended for those who are pregnant simply because it is unknown if the baby will be phenylketonuric, even though the likelihood that the baby would have this condition is minimal.

Phosphatidylserine: Phosphatidylserine (PS) belongs to a special category of fat-soluble substances called phospholipids, which are essential components of all cell membranes. PS is found in high concentrations in the brain, and the studies using PS from bovine sources have shown that 800mg/day may effectivly suppress cortisol production in the body after bouts of physical exercise. Other research indicates that phosphatidylserine may also enhance memory. However, commercially available supplements that contain PS are not derived from bovine cortex tissue (as there is a fear of possible infectious disease), but rather from soy, which is not exactly the same chemical product. Few studies have been run on soy-based PS, and it is probably inappropriate to project bovine PS research to soy-based PS. At this time, lack of research and evidence would preclude the usage of PS-containing supplements for the purposes of cortisol suppression.

Phospholipid: A phosphorous-containing lipid composed mainly of fatty acids and a phosphate group. Also see "Lecithin" and "Phosphatidylserene".

Phytochemical: This term means "plant chemical." It`s used to refer to a broad spectrum of bioactive plant compounds that are typically used in herbal preparations and a variety of other nutrition supplements.

Pineal Gland: This is an endocrine gland that functions mainly in the secretion of melatonin and a few other peptide hormones.

Pinitol: Pinitol is known to be contained in pine wood, alfalfa and legumes. Pinitol for nutritional supplements is derived from soy. Pinitol may have implications for athletes in that it may It may decrease blood sugar levels and free fatty acid levels, increase glucose uptake by the muscle cell and may enhance glycogen storage. This may lead to greater energy levels, more stable blood sugar levels, and increased cell volumization. Additionally, Pinitol may improve insulin function by theoretically increasing insulin sensitivity. As creatine hyper-accumulation in muscle may be insulin dependent, Pinitol supplementation may facilitate creatine uptake and retention.

Placebo: This is a harmless, "inactive" substance which may be given in the place of an effective drug or substance, especially to "control groups" in clinical studies. In many cases, individuals using a placebo will react positively as though they were using an efficacious compound. Some of the positive effects performance athletes experience while using natural supplements are attributed to a "placebo effect." Basically, if you strongly believe a supplement will work, there is a chance that belief alone will produce positive results. It is even theorized that many of the positive effects athletes experience while using anabolic steroids can be attributed to a placebo effect. This is why it`s important to do placebo-controlled scientific studies—to separate real effects from "placebo effects."

Placebo Effect: This term refers to the effect of the mind upon the body when a person is convinced that he/she is receiving a treatment (a supplement, for example) that will affect their body in a certain way (i.e. a "self-fulfilling prophecy). Study results may be skewed due to this effect unless it is controlled for. "Double-blind" studies are a good way to control for a placebo effect; one reason why this type of study design is typically more reliable than other study designs (see "double blind study"). The implementation of control groups (a group not exposed to treatment) are utilized to control (or at least quantify) placebo effects.

Polydextrose: Polydextrose, a polysaccharide, is a combination of three or more dextrose molecules. Commercially used as a sweetener. (see "dextrose")

Polypeptides: These are proteins formed by the union of three or more (usually many) amino acids.

Polyphenols: Polyphenols (i.e. catechins, isoflavones, and flavonoids) are a class of phytochemicals found in high concentrations in wine, tea, grapes, whole grain cereals, and a wide variety of other plants. These compounds are responsible for the brightly colored pigments of many fruits and vegetables. Polyphenols are among the most potent plant antioxidants and may reduce the absorption of excess reactive metals (i.e. iron, zinc, and copper). Polyphenols may have protective effects on several disease processes like some cancers and forms of heart disease, and Parkinson’s disease. They may protect LDL (bad) cholesterol from becoming oxidized (a key step in developing atherosclerosis), lower blood pressure in hypertensive subjects, and reduce the tendency of the blood to clot.

Polysaccharides: These are carbohydrates containing a large number of "sugar groups." Starch, glycogen, dextrin, and cellulose are examples.

Precursors: These are compounds from which another compound is formed. For example, the hormone androstenedione is a direct precursor to testosterone production in the body.

Prohormone: This term refers to a class of chemicals typically found inside various glands in the body, such as the pituitary and adrenal glands. These chemicals are the direct precursors to hormone production: e.g., pro-insulin is the direct precursor to insulin. DHEA and melatonin are also prohormones.

Prostaglandins: These are "hormone-like" chemicals produced in the body. Their structure is much like that of a fatty acid, and they exhibit a wide range of actions on things like blood pressure, water balance, immune system reactions, inflammation, etc. Their synthesis, in almost all tissues in the body, is partially controlled by fatty acid intake.

Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): This is a measure of protein quality assessed by determining how well a given protein supports weight gain in laboratory animals: namely, rats. The PER is probably not the best rating system because it overestimates methionine needs due to the greater need for methionine in rats for hair production, but whatever.

Protein Synthesis: Although the major component of the body tissues is water, otherwise body tissues (including muscle) are composed of protein. Synthesis essentially means "to build". Therefore, in essence, protein synthesis is the building up of proteins within the body. Since most of the body’s protein pool is found in muscle, protein synthesis is more or less synonymous with gains in muscle mass.

Proteins: Highly complex nitrogen or sulfur-containing compounds found primarily in animal sources and in some plant sources. They are made up of one or more chains of amino acids (22 in length) and are the building blocks for all of the structural components of our bodies. These structural components include tissues, enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.

Protodioscin: Protodioscin is the active ingredient in tribulus terrestris, which may increase the secretion of lutenizing hormone. In turn, lutenizing hormone stimulates the release of testosterone, a powerful muscle-building hormone.

Pseudoephedrine: Pseudoephedrine is a synthetically derived form of ephedrine developed primarily for use as an antihistamine and brochiodilator in over-the-counter cold preparations. Sufficient studies have not been undertaken to determine whether or not pseudoepedrine may contribute significant thermogenic activity (see "ephedrine").

Pure: This term is often used to refer to supplements that are unadulterated—that have no other ingredient in them except that which is stated on the label.

Purine Alkaloid: A purine alkaloid is a plant-derived substance with a crystalline organic base (C5H4N4) that has stimulating or analgesic properties. Caffeine and mateine are examples of purine alkaloids.

  

Racemic ALA: A combination of both "R" and "S" forms of Alpha Lipoic Acid. The "R" and "S" simply refers to the molecular structure…similar to the "D" or "L" versions of amino acids such as in "L"-Carnitine.

Recommended Daily Allowances (U.S. RDA or RDA): The Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) is a set of guidelines established for daily vitamin and mineral intakes, developed by the U.S. government Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the mid 1900s. These guidelines were developed initially in response to many health problems incurred by soldiers during WWII, whose rations lacked certain vitamins and minerals in sufficient quantities. As such, the RDA defines the necessary intake of each vitamin and mineral to prevent disease. However, this guideline was not intended to define the optimal amount of each nutrient. The RDA may also be short of one’s actual vitamin and mineral daily requirements depending upon body size and activity level.

Reference Daily Intake (RDI): The RDI represents the upper tolerable limit of vitamin and mineral intakes that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommends for adults and persons 4 or more years of age. Food label percentages (called Percent Daily Values, or %DV) are based upon the RDI. For example, if the RDI for calcium is 1000 mg, and a food label lists calcium as 100%, that product contains the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) of calcium (1000 mg).

Ribose: Ribose is a five-carbon sugar, most notable for its role as a component of adenosine. Adenosine is the molecule to which phosphates are attached to yield "adenosine triphosphate", or ATP, the body’s energy currency. Supplemental ribose taken orally may increase muscular power, strength, and strength-endurance. Ribose is often taken with creatine, since these products seem to work in a complimentary fashion with each other.

Rice oligodextrin: Rice oligodextrin is a hydrolyzed (dried) rice starch. It contains up to 600% more protein than maltodextrin and is about 1/5 as sweet as dextrose. Rice oligodextrin may be used in meal replacements to provide good texture, as well as a source of low-glycemic carbohydrates. Use of rice oligodextrin in these products can reduce the need for oil as a texturing agent.

Saccharine (Sweet ’N Low): Saccharine is the "original" artificial sweetener discovered in 1879 by a chemist named Constantine Fahlberg, and available shortly thereafter commercially as a nutritional sweetener. This product is 200 - 500 times sweeter than cane sugar, and thus very little is needed to properly sweeten foods. Also, unlike some other artificial sweeteners, saccharine is stable at high temperatures. Studies published in 1951 and 1977 suggested that saccharine is a carcinogen in rats. These findings prompted the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to attempt to ban this substance. Although it was never actually banned, the FDA issued a requirement that products containing saccharine must include a warning label informing consumers of this potential health risk. This requirement has since been appealed by the FDA due to recent research discounting saccharine’s role as a carcinogen. Therefore saccharine has been removed from the FDA list of suspected carcinogens. Nevertheless, saccharine usage has declined since 1981 with the introduction of aspartame, as consumers generally prefer the taste of aspartame over saccharine.

Salicylic Acid: see "asprin"

Saponin: A saponin is a category of phytonutrients (plant nutrients) found abundantly in many beans, and other plants such as ginseng, alfalfa, yucca, aloe and quinoa seed. Saponin-containing plants tend to have a soapy texture, and are often called "natural detergents" due to the foam that develops when heated (such as the foam that develops when one heats beans). Saponins have been shown to form a complex with cholesterol, which is then excreted from the body. For this reason, saponins are currently being researched for their potential role in cholesterol management and cancer prevention. One saponin that is of particular interest to bodybuilders is called protodioscin (see "Protodioscin") which is found in the herb Tribulus Terrestris.

Saturated Fats: These are considered to be the "bad" fats. They are called "saturated" because their carbon structures are completely filled (saturated) with hydrogen atoms. Their chemical structure is very linear which allows for a "stacking" effect to occur. This is what promotes the solidifying effect of most saturated fats (butter, lard, most animal fats). This solidification may also occur in the body which partly explains the artery-clogging effects linked to saturated fats. Examples of saturated fats include myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, and lignoceric acid. These fats may raise cholesterol levels in the body and should be used in moderation.

Selenium: Selenium (Se) is a mineral that is a powerful antioxidant. Selenium may also protect against certain types of cancers. Selenium may also assist in carbohydrate metabolism and may increase tissue sensitivity to the action of insulin. Deficiencies in selenium intake may lead to cardiovascular disease, hair loss, cataracts, fatigue, and depression. Food sources are cereals, seafood, meat, soybeans, vegetables, and fruits. Processing and cooking foods greatly reduces their selenium content.

Sodium: Sodium (Na) is a mineral that helps to control the water balance in the body. It is essential for the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. It is needed for healthy nerve function, and normal muscle contraction and relaxation. Sodium helps with amino acid absorption and helps prevent mineral deposits in the bloodstream. It helps to maintain blood and lymph health, is involved in oxygen transport, aids digestion, and rids the body of excess carbon dioxide. Deficiencies in sodium intake may lead to vomiting, diarrhea, extreme sweating, or any condition with excessive fluid loss. Symptoms of a sodium deficiency include intestinal gas, weight loss, poor memory, short attention span, vomiting, low blood sugar, heart palpitations, and muscle weakness. Sodium occurs naturally in most foods but may be added to others. Milk, beets, and celery are natural sources. Processed meats (i.e. bacon, sausage, and ham), soups, and vegetables have added sodium. Monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda and sodium benzoate found in ingredients such as Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, onion salt, garlic salt, and bouillon cubes are all common sources of added sodium.

Sodium Caseinate: see "Casein"

Sodium Hexametaphosphate: Delivers phosphates used in foods as an acidity modifier and a sequestering agent. In addition, this ingredient delivers the minerals, sodium and phosphate, to support key essential functions in the body and stay healthy.

Somatotropin: see "Growth Hormone"

Sorbitol: Sorbitol is a sweetener used in a variety of "reduced-calorie" foods since it contains one-third fewer calories (2.6 kcal/g) compared to sucrose (3.8 kcal/gram). Sorbitol also functions as a texturizing agent, and as a moistener in manufactured foods, and tends to promote sweetness while providing a smooth mouth feel. This product has been used in manufactured foods for almost a half-century, and is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It has also been approved by other health agencies, including those bodies in Australia, Canada, Japan, and the European Union. Sorbitol is chemically unreactive, and does not break down at high temperatures, making it an ideal sweetener for baking. Sorbitol is most commonly found naturally in fruits and berries, although most dietary sorbitol is produced from processing glucose.

Soy Flour: Soy flour is the simplest form of soy protein, made simply by grinding and screening deffatted soybeans. This process yields a product that is about 50% protein. Soy flours are high in oligosaccharides (see definition), that gives soy flour a bean-like taste. Soy flours also tend to be somewhat variable in quality because of the lack of processing.

Soy Lecithin: Lecithin is a nonessential "phospholipid," a compound consisting of fatty acid chains bound to the element phosphorus, and has several functions in the body. Specifically, lecithin supplies choline to the body. Choline is a cofactor for production of the hormone acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that "activates" muscle contraction. Lecithin is also a source of omega-3 fatty acids, and essential fatty acid typically undersupplied in most peoples’ diets (see "omega-3 fatty acids). A third function of lecithin is as an emulsifying agent within the digestive system. Specifically lecithin may aid in breaking up fats into small droplets, thus aiding in digestion. The body also uses lecithin to make many substances. For example, lecithin is a component of both high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, bile, and cell membranes (all manufactured intrinsically). This is a nonessential compound, meaning that the body can make lecithin, provided that the building blocks of lecithin (phosphates, choline, and essential fatty acids) are ingested in large enough quantities. The richest natural source of lecithin is soybean oil.

Soy Protein: Protein derived from soybeans. Although soy protein traditionally has never been big in bodybuilding circles, newer extraction processes have yielded much higher quality proteins like soy protein isolate ("see soy protein isolate")

Soy Protein Isolate: Soy Protein Isolate was first developed by a company named Protein Technologies (a division of Ralston Purina), who cultivated a soybean extraction process that yields over 90% protein. This product is trademarked "Supro®". Supro® scores a perfect 1.0 on a scale of protein quality called PCDAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score), a model intended to mimic the amino acid requirements for humans. Interestingly, this score is even better than scored obtained from animal sources such beef, chicken, and egg. Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) scores so well on the PCDAAS due to high its concentrations of branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), glutamine, and arginine. SPI may also support a healthy metabolism due to its ability to support thyroid function, and may support blood circulation and nutrient delivery. Further, the FDA recently issued an advisory that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include 25 grams of soy protein can help to reduce the risk of heart disease.

Soybean oil: Unrefined soybean oil is mainly a polyunsaturated oil, high in essential fatty acids, and lecithin. Unfortunately, most modern methods of extracting the oil from soybeans damages the beneficial fats found in soybean oil. Since fatty acids are denatured by light, heat, and oxygen, look for products that are refrigerated in dark, opaque bottles. (also see "partially hydrogenated soybean oil")

Splenda®: Splenda® is an artificial sweetener developed and distributed by the Splenda® company. The product’s sole ingredient is sucralose, which is manufactured from sugar cane (see "sucralose).

St. Johns Wort: St. Johns Wort is classified as an herbal MAO inhibitor, used for elevating mood and to treat mild depression. St. Johns Wort is included in thermogenic blends to protect levels of neurotransmitters that are depleted during exercise, and may help to extend the half-lives of neurotransmitters.

Stacking: This term refers to taking two or more compounds at once in an attempt to maximize results.

Stevia: Stevia is a natural sweetener derived from a South American herb (called Stevia). The leaves of this plant contain a substance known as ’steviocide’ which is 300 times sweeter than sucrose. Stevia has been used for centuries in parts of South America as a cure-all and sweetener.

Sublingual: This means "beneath the tongue." Several supplements available to athletes are made to be taken in this manner. This occasionally results in better absorption. Some suggest hormonal preparations be taken sublingually to avoid the harsh environment of the gut.

Sucralose: Sucralose is a non-caloric sweetener synthesized from sugar. This product tastes 600 times sweeter than sugar, yet the body cannot metabolize this product. Sucralose is chemically inert, even when heated, and does not affect blood glucose, insulin secretion, or carbohydrate absorption. Based on over 100 safety studies conducted in the United Kingdom over the course of 20 years, sucralose was approved as a food additive by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1998. It has also has been approved for usage in several other countries.

Sucrose: Sucrose, more commonly known as table sugar, or just "sugar," is a disaccharide composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. Sucrose is isolated from sugar cane or sugar beets. Although sucrose actually boasts only a moderate glycemic response compared to some other sugars, overconsumption of sucrose is generally thought to be partially responsible for medical conditions such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type II diabetes.

Sugar: see "Sucrose"

Sugar Alcohol: A sugar alcohol is neither a "sugar" nor an "alcohol". Although the word is usually associated with intoxicating substances, "alcohol" refers to a specific chemical structure. Sugar alcohols, which include sorbitol, xylitol, maltitol, and maltitol syrup, are found naturally occurring in berries, apples, plums and other foods. They also are produced commercially from carbohydrates such as sucrose, glucose and starch. As a group, sugar alcohols are incompletely absorbed or metabolized and consequently contribute far fewer calories than other carbohydrates. Because sugar alcohols stimulate minimal insulin secretion they are often used in foods for persons with diabetes. According to the FDA, foods that contain sugar alcohols but no sugar can be labeled "sugar free."

Sunflower Oil: Derived from sunflower seeds, sunflower oil is a good source of the essential fatty acid omega-6 (linoleic acid). Unfortunately, unrefined sunflower oil is often sold in a transparent bottle. Because omega-6 fatty acids are unstable compounds and are easily damaged by light, sunflower oil sold in a transparent bottle may actually be low in omega-6 fatty acids compared with products that are refrigerated and come in more protective packaging.

Supplement: This is a term used to describe a preparation such as a pill, powder, or liquid that contains nutrients. A supplement is to be used as part of a person`s daily food intake to either supply adequate or supraphysiological levels of a nutrient.

Supraphysiological: This big word means amounts greater than normally found in the body. For example, a person consuming ten grams of creatine monohydrate per day will create supraphysiological levels of creatine in muscle cells.

Sweet One®: see "Acesulfame K"

Synephrine (Citrus Aurantium, zhi-shi): Synephrine is similar in chemical structure and function to ephedrine, although the stimulatory effects elicited from this product tends to be more mild. Unlike ephedrine, synephrine does not cross the blood-brain barrier and directly stimulate the central nervous system, but it still may offer many of the same effects as a facilitator for bodyfat reduction.

Synergistic: This term refers to an action that is created when things "cooperate" with one another: that is, one supplement could enhance or multiply the effectiveness of another supplement. Many vitamins have been found to be synergistic. Creatine plus carbs is synergistic, as is caffeine plus ephedrine, in the right amounts.

Taurine: Taurine is the second most abundant amino acid in muscle tissue. Supplemental dietary taurine may have a "cell-volumizing" effect. This means that taurine may help to drive more water into muscle cells, creating an anabolic environment for muscle growth. It also may aid in driving more nutrients into muscle cells (an insulin "mimicking" effect). Also see "amino acids".

Testes: This term refers to the male reproductive organs. The testes are where many of the hormones that regulate growth, such as testosterone, are produced.

Testosterone: This is the anabolic hormone produced primarily by the testes in men, which makes muscles grow. It literally separates the men from the boys.

Thermogenesis: Thermogenesis is the process of liberating calories as heat by increasing the body’s metabolic rate. Thermogenesis is activated by a few different mechanisms, including supplements, nutrition, exercise, and exposure to cold.

Thermogenic: A substance that may promote thermogenesis. Taking a thermogenic agent may speed up the metabolism, raise core body temperature, and accelerate calorie expenditure. Examples of thermogenic agents include nutrients such as caffeine and synephrine.

Titanium Dioxide: Many supplement capsules are coated with titanium dioxide, which gives these products a glossy sheen. Titanium dioxide is safe when ingested in reasonable amounts, even on a chronic basis. Even at levels normally encountered in industrial settings (a much greater amount than what is found on capsules) there is little potential for harm.

Toasted Soy Pieces: Toasted soy pieces consist of soy protein isolate mixed with rice flour, compacted into a crispy-rice-like product.

Trans Fatty Acids: Trans fats are fats that are produced through hydrogenation, a chemical process by which hydrogen is added to unsaturated fatty acids. Hydrogenation converts these unsaturated bonds into saturated bonds, creating a solid, spreadable fat, (such as maragarine) with a long shelf life. These altered fats have many uses in the food industry such as in making pie crusts flakier and French fries crispier. Unfortunalty, recent studies within the last 22 years have confirmed that an elevated consumption of transfatty acids double the risk of developing heart disease. They have also been shown to increase LDL (low density lipoproteins) and lower the HDL (high density lipoproteins).  Lipoproteins are a type of cholesterol with positive health benefits. Additionally, Trans fats have become a topic of concern as they currently are not labeled on "Nutrition Facts". Since trans fats are not saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated there is no way to tell how much trans fats are secretly undermining your diet. For this reason , the FDA has been in the process of preparing guidelines to either limit or inform consumers of the transfats within foods. EAS is going to begin labeling Trans Fat on our supplement facts panel as a proactive move towards the governments efforts to begin this transition. EAS uses only minimal trans fats- designed to help mouth-feel and texture of particular supplements. The minimal amounts of trans fats contained in our supplements to not contribute significantly toward bad cholesterol levels.

Transdermal Delivery System: Transdermal deliver means that a product (usually a drug) is delivered through the skin. This designation is reserved for drugs, and is not permitted by the FDA for use in dietary supplements, even though there are supplements on the market that claim work transdermally. These products are actually "hidden" from the FDA under the guise of cosmetics (rather than as dietary supplements).

Triglycerides: Triglyceride is the chemical structure of all dietary fats, as well as the storage form of fats, called adipose tissue. Specifically, triglycerides consist of four parts: a "backbone" called glycerin plus three "fatty acid tails" attached to that glycerin molecule, which consist of a string of carbon molecules bound to hydrogens. Actually, the glycerin molecule is not a fat at all. In fact, the chemical structure of glycerin is more similar to a carbohydrate. Nevertheless, glycerin is rarely utilized by the body as an energy source, and thus functions mainly as a fatty acid "carrier." A high level of triglycerides in the blood is often associated with low HDL (high-density lipoproteins, the "good" cholesterol) levels and greater amounts of LDL (low-density lipoproteins, the "bad" cholesterol). Therefore, high levels of blood triglycerides may be linked with atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). For this reason, doctors monitor triglyceride levels carefully, especially for people susceptible to cardiovascular disease.

Tripeptides: These are protein fragments that are three amino acids long.

Turmeric (Curcuma Longa): Turmeric is a spice from Asia, in the ginger family. It is mainly used in curries and as a yellow coloring agent in food. It may have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal effects. Turmeric’s main effect is as an antioxidant that is up to 5 times more potent than vitamin E.

Unsaturated Fats: These are "good" fats. They are called unsaturated because they have one or more open "carbon spots." Unsaturated fats can be divided into two categories: polyunsaturated fats and monounsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats have been shown to help reduce cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood. This category of fats includes the essential fatty acids linoleic and linolenic. The main sources of these fats are from plant foods, such as safflower, sunflower, and flaxseed oils. 

Up-regulate: This term basically means "increase." For example, creatine monohydrate appears to have the ability to up-regulate or increase the muscle`s ability to replenish energy stores.

VO2 max: This is the maximum volume of oxygen an individual can consume per minute of work. It is often used to evaluate an athlete`s cardiovascular efficiency and, thus, performance capacity.

Vitamin A: Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that may be found in the form of either retinol or beta carotene. Retinol is the naturally occurring form of active Vitamin A. Beta carotene is a naturally occurring substance that can be converted into Vitamin A in the body. Vitamin A helps to support good vision, healthy epithelial tissue and immune system function. It is a powerful antioxidant that may help reduce cell damage by free radicals and may even protect against certain cancers. Symptoms of vitamin A deficiency can be as mild as skin dryness, or as severe as night blindness. It is found in yellow vegetables such as carrots, pumpkin, squash, and sweet potatoes, as well as, broccoli, asparagus, spinach, green peas, peaches, tomatoes, oranges, and melons. Milk, cheese, butter, egg yolks, liver and fish liver oil are animal sources. Beta-carotene can be destroyed by heat, oxygen, light, and alkali (like baking soda used to keep vegetables green).

Vitamin B-1: Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) is a water-soluble vitamin. Thiamine is a catalyst that aids in carbohydrate metabolism. It is also involved in the maintenance of healthy skin and in the conversion of fatty acids to steroids. A deficiency in thiamin can lead to the disease beriberi–symptoms of which feature swelling of the heart, headaches, constipation, insomnia, and leg cramps. A very severe deficiency can lead to heart failure. Thiamine can be found in fortified breads, brown rice, cereals, pasta, whole grains, lean meats, fish, dried beans, peas, and soybeans. Dairy products and milk, plums and raisins, and vegetables are not very high in thiamine, but when consumed in large amounts they become a significant source. Cooking reduces the thiamin content of foods, as do ultraviolet light and live yeast. Thiaminase, an enzyme in raw fish may also reduce thiamin content.

Vitamin B-12: Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is a water-soluble vitamin that helps make red blood cells, and aids in the proper functioning of the nervous system. It is involved in production of myelin (the sheath that covers nerves). Vitamin B-12 may reduce the risk of some cancers. A deficiency in vitamin B-12 intake may lead to fatigue and pallor, moodiness, memory loss, lack of coordination, depression, and psychosis. Cobalamin can only be found in animal proteins. Organ meats, fish, eggs, and milk are all good sources. Processing and cooking can reduce the amount of vitamin B-12 in foods.

Vitamin B-2: Vitamin B-2 (riboflavin) is a water-soluble vitamin that aids in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Riboflavin is needed for healthy eyes, tissue repair and red blood cell production. Strenuous exercise and stress may increase riboflavin requirements. Signs of deficiency include increased sensitivity to light in the eyes, cracks in the mouth and lips, inflammation of the tongue and flaking of the skin in various areas. Good sources of riboflavin are liver, legumes, nuts, meat, dark green leafy vegetables, whole grains, and mushrooms. Milk loses 10-12 percent of its B-2 when it is pasteurized, evaporated, or dried. Meat loses about 25 percent of its B-2 when cooked.

Vitamin B-3: Vitamin B-3 (niacin) is a water-soluble vitamin. Niacin is important in maintaining a healthy nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and skin. Niacin may help to widen the blood vessels and increase blood flow to the extremities. Some bodybuilders have used Niacin to "pump-up" prior to competitions. It may help to prevent arteriosclerosis and pellagra-a disease whose symptoms include diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, circulatory problems, and a swollen tongue. Niacin deficiencies can result in depression, irritability, weakness, and memory loss. It can be found in lean meats, dairy products, fish, poultry, rice bran, potatoes, whole grains, dried beans, tomatoes, carrots, legumes, and nuts. Niacin may be lost during boiling of foods.

Vitamin B-5: Vitamin B-5 (Pantothenic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that is important to the proper metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Pantothenic acid is involved in the production of steroids, cholesterol, bile, hemoglobin, and acetylcholine. It is vital to the healthy functioning of the adrenal gland. Due to its presence in a wide variety of foods, deficiencies are rare. Deficiencies would include headache, insomnia, and fatigue. Organ meats, egg yolks, salt water fish, potatoes, beans, fresh vegetables, and wheat germ are excellent sources. Significant amounts of Pantothenic acid are lost when foods are cooked, canned, frozen, or otherwise processed.

Vitamin B-6: Vitamin B-6 (pyroxidine) is a water-soluble vitamin. It is useful for the metabolism of amino acids and essential fatty acids. Pyroxidine is needed to convert iron into hemoglobin, and to produce red blood cells and antibodies. A deficiency can lead to a variety of skin disorders, anemia, suppressed immune responses, dizziness, nausea, and in severe cases, kidney stones. Bananas, brown rice, carrots, cantaloupe, avocadoes, spinach, organ meats, wheat germ, bread, and cereals are all good sources. Up to 70 percent of the B-6 in foods may be lost during cooking or processing.

Vitamin B-9: Vitamin B-9 (folic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that helps the body metabolize amino acids and synthesize proteins and hemoglobin. It may be play a large role in developing DNA and RNA. Folic acid is important in neurotransmitter production and immune system function. Symptoms of folic acid deficiency may include anemia, irritability, weakness, and difficulty sleeping. Organ meats, beef, lamb, leafy green vegetables, asparagus, oysters, nuts, salmon, milk, whole grains, and beans are all good sources. Generally, no more than 50 percent of the folic acid in foods can be absorbed by the body. Cooking and processing may reduce the folic acid content of foods considerably.

Vitamin C: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin. In addition to being a powerful antioxidant, vitamin C helps to support the immune system, synthesize connective tissue, maintain collagen, bones (and teeth), and also helps in iron absorption. Ascorbic acid may help to prevent high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and low HDL levels. It may help the liver to detoxify drugs and other chemicals, and has possible implications in the prevention of certain cancers. The typical result of vitamin C deficient is scurvy. Scurvy can be recognized by irritability, joint pain, gingivitis, bleeding gums, and extreme weakness and fatigue. Ascorbic is generally found in citrus fruits, but may also be found in rose hips, strawberries, tomatoes, broccoli, turnip greens and other greens, sweet and white potatoes, chili peppers, and cantaloupe. Fish and milk contain small amounts. Ascorbic acid is easily destroyed when exposed to oxygen, light, and heat.

Vitamin D: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin important for bone formation. It helps increase the absorption of calcium and phosphorous. Vitamin D may help reduce the risk of some cancers and high blood pressure. Deficiencies in vitamin D intake may lead to osteoporosis, easily fractured bones, and reduce immune system functioning. The body can synthesize vitamin D when the skin is exposed to sunlight. Vitamin D is found in cheese, butter, margarine, cream, fortified milk, fish, oysters, organ meats, sunflower seeds, and fortified cereals.

Vitamin E: Vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin that is a powerful antioxidant. Vitamin E helps in the formation of red blood cells and muscles. It may play a role in healing wounds, increasing HDL, and reducing risk of some cancers. Deficiencies in vitamin E intake may lead to cataracts, muscular disease, and weakening of the lungs, liver and heart. Vitamin E can be found in vegetable oils, wheat germ, corn, nuts, seeds, olives, spinach, asparagus sweet potatoes, or leafy green vegetables. Organ meats and eggs are animal sources. Processing and cooking foods may reduce the vitamin E content of foods.

Vitamin K: Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that may be produced by bacteria in the intestines. It is needed to maintain proper blood clotting and bone density. Vitamin K plays a key role in fetal development. Deficiencies in vitamin K intake may lead to excessive bleeding, anemia, easy bruising, osteoporosis, easy bone fracturing, and heart disease. Organ meats, egg yolks, soybeans, and green leafy vegetables, cauliflower, and safflower oil are common sources of vitamin K.

Vitamins: These organic compounds are vital to life in that they work to drive chemical reactions, or may be needed by other vitamins or enzymes to accomplish the reaction. Vitamins aid in the formation of hormones, blood cells, and even genetic material. Though they support a multitude of biological functions, they are needed only in minute amounts. There are major 13 vitamins needed by the body: Vitamins A, C, D, E, K, and the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and biotin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate). Vitamins are obtained from the diet, except for vitamin D and vitamin K, which the body can synthesize.

Vitargo (potato starch): Vitargo® is a brand name of a high-density carbohydrate product formulated from potato starch. Potato starch will empty quickly from the stomach into the small intestine where it will form a gel. This gel will release glucose into the bloodstream over a period of time which may offer athletes a source of fuel for long-duration activities. Potato starch may also help to "smooth out" the action of insulin if taken in conjunction with a higher-glycemic carbohydrate. Some sports-performance products include potato starch in a carbohydrate blend to enhance glycogen replenishment and to balance blood sugar levels elevated by the simpler carbohydrates in the formula.

Whey Protein: Whey is one of the two types of protein found in milk, now considered by many to be the new "gold standard" in protein quality. Historically, whey was considered a waste product in the development of cottage cheese. Eventually, somebody decided to investigate this "waste product" a bit closer. It was discovered that whey contains an excellent amino acid profile, dissolves readily, and digests easily. Whey protein also boasts a very high biological value (BV) score, a measure of protein quality. Specifically, whey is high (23%-25%) in branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), which are important for preventing the breakdown of muscle. It is also high in immunoglobulins that may help to support immune function. Further, whey may stimulate the body’s ability to naturally produce glutathione, the body’s most powerful antioxidant, and may even stimulate the anabolic hormone insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I). Concentrate vs. Isolate – The main difference between a whey protein concentrate and a whey protein isolate is the purity of the protein. Concentrates use more economical methods for removing the unwanted components of whey (lactose, carbohydrates, sodium, cholesterol, and fat) compared to isolates. As such, concentrates contain more of these unwanted components (lactose, carbohydrates, sodium, cholesterol, and fat). A typical whey protein concentrate is 80% protein. Isolates, on the other hand, tend to have a higher concentration of protein due to more advanced extraction methods which results in a product that is greater than 90% protein. (also see "ion-exchange" and "microfiltration")

White Willow Bark: White willow bark offers a naturally occurring form of aspirin, and it may help to relieve pain, lower fever, and reduce inflammation. White Willow provides a safe and natural alternative to its synthetic counterpart, aspirin, and will not cause stomach upset or bleeding (adverse reactions sometimes caused by aspirin). Chinese physicians have used White Willow Bark to ease the severity of pain associated with inflammation and cramping since 500BC Salicylates found in white willow bark can reduce pain by acting on tissues and associated sensory nerves, inhibiting the synthesis of chemicals called prostaglandins, which are involved in such conditions as menstrual cramps and inflammatory responses.

Xanthan Gum: Xanthan gum is a complex polysaccharide extracted from vegetables such as cabbage. In foods, this product is used as an emulsifier, suspension agent, and thickener. Thus, the addition of xanthan gum to foods results in a product with enhanced consistency and mouth feel. Xanthan gum also tends to improve shelf life of products. Xanthan gum is often combined with guar gum, since these products tend to compliment each other.

Xylitol: Xylitol is a sugar alcohol that has the same number of calories and relative sweetness as the sugar sucrose. In contrast to sucrose, however, xylitol does not raise blood sugar or insulin levels significantly which means xylitol may not be converted to fat as easily as sugar. For this reason, xylitol is often used as a sugar substitute by those who are interested in reducing bodyfat. In addition, xylitol may improve nitrogen balance, decrease appetite, and increase fat burning. Although xylitol is a "sugar alcohol" by chemical structure, the product does not act on the body in any way similar to alcohol, and would be safe to use for those with problems or moral objections in regards to alcohol.

Yeast: Yeast is a general term referring to a group of substances that have the ability to ferment carbohydrates. Yeast in found naturally in sugar-laden foods (like fruits), in soil, and in the vegetative parts of plants.

Yerba Mate: Yerba Mate is an herb grown in the rain forests of Paraguay. The leaves of the Yerba Mate plant contain antioxidants, vitamins, amino acids, minerals, fatty acids, and other nutrients. Yerba Mate also contains a purine alkaloid called mateine. Yerba Mate supplies many of the nutrients required by the heart for growth and repair. Additionally, it increases the supply of oxygen to the heart, especially during periods of stress or exercise. Yerba Mate may increase the immune response of the body, stimulating natural resistance to disease. It may also suppress the appetite, relieve constipation, and improve digestion.

Yohimbe (Yohimbine): Yohimbe may aid in bodyfat reduction in two distinct ways: it may reduce fat synthesis and storage, as may increase fatty acid release from bodyfat stores. Yohimbe may be even more effective for women than it is for men, as women generally have more receptors available to this product, located abundantly in the hips and thighs region. 

Zhi-Shi: See "Synephrine"

Zinc: Zinc (Zn) is a mineral that is important in the synthesis of DNA and RNA necessary for cell division, repair, and growth. Zinc is needed in proper reproductive functioning, removal of toxins in the liver, immune system support. Zinc has been implicated in the activation of vitamin A in the eye. It may also inhibit prolactin (a pituitary hormone whose action may include sexual dysfunction in men). Deficiencies in zinc intake may lead to loss of appetite, poor night vision, susceptibility to infections, and birth defects. Food sources are meats, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, legumes, and whole grains.